Zea mays
corn
145 Related Pests
Harpophora maydis
fungus
Cephalosporium maydis, Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritic, Ophiobolus graminis var. tritici; Magnaporthiopsis maydis
Egypt, Hungary, India, Israel, Italy, Portugal, Span. Reported but not confirmed in Kenya and Romania
Not known to occur
Brazil, other S. American countries
2023-08-21
The organism can be easily moved in shipments that contain either infested soil or seed. Listed as Magnaporthiopsis maydis in Brazil and other S. American countries.
Corn. (Cotton and lupine maybe secondary hosts.)
Yes
HARPMA-2, HARPMA-1, HARPMA-3, ISFRPLD
Seed as a pathway has been established. Hyphae may be internal.
HARPMA-2, HARPMA-1, HARPMA-3, ISFRPLD
Agar incubation, PCR testing of seedlings.
HARPMA-3, ISFRPLD
These tests have not been validated.
ISFRPLD
Resistant varieties available.
Global Pest and Disease Database - Version 2.3.11, 2012; Pest ID 3069. Developed by the Center for Integrated Pest Management; USDA
Harpophora maydis In: Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc."
Mchial, et. al., 1999, Seed health testing of corn for Cephalosporium maydis. Acta Pathologica et Entomologica Hungaria. 34 35-41
Peronosclerospora philippinensis
fungus
Sclerospora phillipinensis, Sclerospora maydis
Africa: Mauritius; Asia: Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand.
Not known occur. Reports of pathogen in the US have not been verified (PRSCPH-4)
Mexico
2024-11-18
Downing mildew caused by Peronsclerospora phillippensis is primarily a disease of tropical Asia and Africa. It is one of the most destructive diseases of corn globally. It is commonly dispersed by air currents and rainsplash. It can be spread through corn seeds, especially if not properly dried. This is on the USDA Plant Protection And Quarantine (PPQ)
Select Agents and Toxins list. P. philippinensis closely resembles P. sacchari.
Main: corn; Other: Poaceae family such as oats, sugarcane, and sorghum
Yes
PRSCPH-3, PRSCPH-4, CABI CPC, USDA-FD, PRSCPH-7, PRSCPH-8
The pathogen is only transmitted with freshly harvested immature seed that has not been properly dried. Transmission ceased once seed is dried to less than 30% moisture.
PRSCPH-3, PRSCPH-4, CABI CPC, USDA-FD, PRSCPH-7, PRSCPH-8
Embryo examination
PRSCPH-2, CABI CPC, PRSCPH-7
Two embryo examination methods described. Neither method has been standardized or validated for clinical use.
Chemical, cultural
PRSCPH-3, PRSCPH-4, CABI CPC
Resistant cultivars available. Do not harvest immature seed and seed storage and drying to less than 20% mositure eliminated seed transmission.
Exconde OR, Molina AB, 1978. Note: Ridomil (Ciba-Geigy) a seed-dressing fungicide for control of Philippine corn downy mildew. Philippine Journal Crop Science, 3:60-64.
Global Pest and Disease Database - Version 2.3.11, 2012; Pest ID 512. Developed by the Center for Integrated Pest Management; USDA
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
USDA Fungal Database, https://fungi.ars.usda.gov
Murray, G. M., 2009. Threat specific contingency plan: Philippine downy mildew of maize (Peronosclerospora philippinensis) and downy mildew of sorghum (P. sorghi). Australia: Plant Health Australia
Bains SS, Jhooty JS, 1982. Distribution, spread and perpetuation of Peronosclerospora philippinensis in Punjab. Indian Phytopathology, 35(4):566-570
Singh, et. al. 1967, Internally seedborne nature of two downy mildews on Corn. Plant Disease Reporter 51; 1010-1012
Ditylenchus dipsaci
nematode
Anguillula devastatrix, Anguillula dipsaci, Anguillula secalis, Anguillulina dipsaci,Anguillulina dipsaci var. communis, Ditylenchus allocotus, Ditylenchus amsinckiae, Ditylenchus dipsaci var. tobaensis, Ditylenchus fragariae,Ditylenchus sonchophila, Ditylenchus trifolii, Tylenchus allii Tylenchus devastator, Tylenchus devastatrix
Tylenchus dipsaci, Tylenchus havensteini, Tylenchus hyacinthi, Tylenchus putrefaciens
Worldwide in temperate climates.
Widespread
Brazil
2023-05-05
Ditylenchus dipsaci is known to attack over 450 different plant species, including many weeds. There are approximately 20 biological races known that tend to prefer certain hosts.
No
ISFRPLD, DITYDI-6
Pathway not proven. Though one reference indicates infested seed were used in eradication experiments, there was no information on how infested seeds were obtained. There were no other references found to verify seed pathway.
ISFRPLD, DITYDI-6
Rhodococcus fascians
bacterium
Corynebacterium fascians, Bacterium fascians, Phytomonas fascians, Pseudobacterium fascians, Rhodococcus rubropertinctus
Europe, North America, Central America, Australia, New Zealand, Iran, Russia, Egypt, Colombia
Widespread
Brazil, Thailand
2023-08-21
Though found in many US states, the pathogen is usually restricted and localized. Probably Worldwide, though not reported. Disease outbreaks are sporadic and usually related to poor sanitation. Bulbs, floral and greenhouse crops most susceptible to disease outbreaks. No reports of seed as a pathway in vegetables and agronomic crops.
Primarily a pest of ornamentals, woody ornamentals and floowers. Vegetables and agronomic crops reported susceptible to the bacterium are listed below. Transmits primarily through propagation.
No
CORBFA-3
No evidence of natural infections. May not be a host. No references found indicating seed is a pathway.
CORBFA-3
Putnam,M.L. and Miller, M.L. 2007. Rhodococcus facians in Herbaceous Perennials. Plant Disease 91: 1064-1076
Dickeya chrysanthemi
bacterium
Dickeya chrysanthemi bv. chrysanthemi
Dickeya chrysanthemi bv. parthenii
Dickeya chrysanthemi pv. chrysanthemi
Dickeya chrysanthemi pv. parthenii
Erwinia carotovora f.sp. parthenii
Erwinia carotovora var. chrysanthemi
Erwinia chrysanthemi
Erwinia chrysanthemi pv. chrysanthemi
Erwinia chrysanthemi pv. parthenii (
Pectobacterium carotovorum f.sp. chrysanthemi
Pectobacterium carotovorum var. chrysanthemi
Pectobacterium chrysanthemi
Pectobacterium chrysanthemi pv. chrysanthemi
Pectobacterium chrysanthemi pv. parthenii
Pectobacterium parthenii
Pectobacterium parthenii var. chrysanthemi
Pectobacterium parthenii-dianthicola
Worldwide
AR, CA, CO, CT, FL, GA, IL, MA, MN, NE, NY, NC, ND, OH, PA, SD, TX, VA, WI
Mexico, China
2025-09-12
Dickeya chrysanthemi strains have been isolated from a number of different hosts in different countries. The list of all susceptible plants after inoculation by Dickeya chrysanthemi would be far longer than the natural host range, and difficult to establish. There is little if any information on seed as a pathway for this pathogen and therefore should not be regulated.
Eriwina chrysanthemi has been reclassified into Pectobacterium spp. and Dickeya spp.
Primarily ornamentals and flowers. Main: Araceae, Asteraceae familes
No
ERIWCH-7, ERIWCH-8, CABI CPC
No references found indicating that corn seed is a pathway for this pathogen.
ERIWCH-7, ERIWCH-8, CABI CPC
Hoppe, P.E. and Kelman, A. 1969. Bacterial tip and stalk rot disease of corn in Wisconsin. Plant Dis. Rept. 53:66-70
Kelman, Person and Hebert. 1957. A bacterial soft rot of irrigated corn in North Carolina. Plant Dis. Rept. 41:798-802
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Candidatus phytoplasma asteris
phytoplasma
Aconitum proliferation, Aconitum virescence, Alberta aster yellows, alfalfa stunt, Alstroemeria decline, American aster yellows, Anemone virescence, apple sessile leaf, apricot chlorotic leaf roll, azalea little leaf, banana elephantiasis, basil little leaf, Bermuda grass white leaf, black currant reversion, black pepper yellows, blueberry stunt, broccoli phyllody, Bunias phyllody, cactus virescence, cactus witches'-broom, Calendula virescence, canola yellows, Cardaria phyllody, carrot proliferation, carrot yellows, cassava phyllody phytoplasma, cassava witches' broom, Catharanthus little leaf, Catharanthus virescence, chayote witches'-broom, cherry bunch leaf, cherry little leaf, chlorantie, Chrysanthemum witches'-broom, Chrysanthemum yellows, Cirsium stunt, Cirsium yellows, clover phyllody, columbine virescence, coorg black pepper yellows, cosmos phyllody, Cyclamen virescence, dandelion yellows, Delphinium virescence, dill yellows, Diplotaxis virescence, dogfennel yellows, dogwood stunt, dwarf western aster yellows, eastern aster yellows, Echinacea phyllody, eggplant dwarf, eggplant little leaf, Epilobium phyllody, Erigeron yellows, European aster yellows, false ragweed, Festuca yellows, Gaillardia yellows, Gladiolus virescence, grapevine yellows, grey dogwood stunt, hyacinth yellows, Hydrangea phyllody and virescence, Ipomoea obscura witches' broom, Italian cabbage yellows, Italian lettuce yellows, kale phyllody, larkspur virescence, lazy daisy yellows, lettuce yellows, lilac little leaf, Limonium proliferation, Limonium yellows, Lotus yellows, maize bushy stunt, mallow yellows, marguerite yellows, marigold phyllody, marigold virescence, Maryland aster yellows, Mitsuba witches' broom, monarda yellows, mulberry dwarf, multiplier disease, New England aster yellows, New Jersey aster yellows, oat proliferation, Oenothera virescence, olive witches'-broom, onion phyllody, onion virescence, onion yellows, Papaver virescence, parsley yellows, Paulownia witches' broom, peach red leaf disease, pear proliferation and decline, periwinkle little leaf, periwinkle witches' broom and virescence, periwinkle yellows, Phytoplasma asteris, plantain virescence, Poa stunt, poplar witches' broom, poplar yellows, Portulaca yellows, potato purple top, prickly lettuce yellows, Primula yellows, pumpkin yellows, purple coneflower yellows, Quercus proliferation, ragweed yellows, Ranunculus phyllody, rape phyllody, rape virescence, rose witches'-broom, ryegrass yellows, safflower phyllody, Salix proliferation, sandal spike, Saponaria proliferation, Schizanthus proliferation, severe western aster yellows, soybean purple stem, Spirea stunt, Stellaria yellows, strawberry green petal, strawberry phylloid fruit, strawberry stunting, Symphytum proliferation, Tacaco witches'-broom, Tagetes witches' broom, Thalictrum proliferation, tomato big bud, tomato yellows, turnip virescence, Veronica phyllody, watercress witches'-broom, western aster yellows, wild radish yellows
Worldwide
Widespread
-
2024-11-09
Candidatus Phytoplasma asteris is naturally transmitted by a wide range of leafhopper, Macrosteles fascifrons is reported to be the principal vector. Seed is not a pathway.
Wide host range, primarily herbaceous dicots, though strains infect monocots and woody ornamentals
No
CABICPC, ISFRPLD
Seed is not a known pathway.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD
Sclerophthora rayssiae var. zeae
fungus
n/a
Asia: India, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Thailand.
Not known occur
China
2025-02-07
Sclerophthora rayssiae var. zeae is is seedborne in corn seeds; however it is typically transmitted by wind, rain, and soil. Pest is on USDA Plant Protection and Quarantine Select Agents and Toxins list.
Main: corn; Other: crabgrasses
Yes
SCPHRZ-2, SCPHRZ-3, CABI CPC, SCPHRZ-6
Oospores external, Hyphae may be internal.
SCPHRZ-2, SCPHRZ-3, CABI CPC, SCPHRZ-6
Embryo staining and microscopic examination.
SCPHRZ-2, CABI CPC, SCPHRZ-7
This test has not been validated or standardized.
Chemical, cultural
SCPHRZ-3, CABI CPC, SCPHRZ-5
Metalaxyl, other systemic fungicides. Resistant cultivars available. Cold storage reduced infection.
Singh, et. al. 1967, Internally seedborne nature of two downy mildews on Corn. Plant Disease Reporter 51; 1010-1012
Global Pest and Disease Database - Version 2.3.11, 2012; Pest ID 600. Developed by the Center for Integrated Pest Management; USDA
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Bains SS, Jhooty JS, Sokhi SS, Rewal AS, 1978. Role of Digitaria sanguinalis in outbreaks of brown stripe downy mildew of maize. Plant Disease Reporter, 62(2):143
Sangam Lal, Thakur Prasad, 1989. Detection and management of seed-borne nature of downy mildew diseases of maize. Seeds & Farms, 15(6):35-40
Lal S, Saxena SC, Upadhyay RN, 1980. Control of brown stripe downy mildew of maize by metalaxyl. Plant Disease, 64(9):874-876
Globisporangium splendens
fungus
Pythium splendens
Worldwide
Widespread
China, Mexico
2025-08-05
Globisporangium splendens is a damaging root pathogen with a broad host range, favored by warm, wet conditions. It is particularly problematic in greenhouses and irrigated fields, where it can spread rapidly and cause significant losses if not properly managed. It spreads through infested soil, water, tools, and infected plant debris. Seed is not known to be a pathway for any host.
Wide host rainge, primarily flowers and ornamentals
No
PYTHSL-2, PYTHSL-3, CABI CPC, PYTHSL-4
Seed is not known to be a pathway.
PYTHSL-2, PYTHSL-3, CABI CPC, PYTHSL-4
Waterhouse GM, Waterston JM, 1966. Pythium splendens. CMI Descriptions of Pathogenic Fungi and Bacteria, No. 120. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
Guo, L. Y., and W. H. Ko. 1993. Distribution of Mating Types and the Nature of Survival of Pythium splendens in soil. Soil biology & biochemistry 25; 839-842.
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
van der Plaats-Niterink, A. J. (1981). Monograph of the genus Pythium (Vol. 21, p. 242). Baarn: Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures.
Cephalosporium sacchari
fungus
Cephalosporium sacchari, Fusarium moniliforme var. subglutinans, Fusarium sacchari, Fusarium sacchari var. elongatum, Fusarium sacchari var. subglutinans, Fusarium subglutinans, Gibberella fujikuroi var. subglutinans, Gibberella moniliforme var. subglutinans, Gibberella subglutinans
Africa: Mali, Mauritius, South Africa; Asia: Bangladehs, China, India, Japan, UAE; Europe: Austria, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Poland; North America: Cuba, Honduras, Mexico, USA; Oceania: Australia, New Zealand; South America: Argentina, Brazil.
AL, CA, FL, HI, MN, NC, SC
China
2024-05-16
Subtropical and tropical regions
sugar cane, corn
No
USDA-FD
No references found indicating that seed is a pathway.
USDA-FD
USDA Fungal Database, https://fungi.ars.usda.gov
Peronosclerospora maydis
fungus
Peronospora maydis, Sclerospora maydis
Africa: Congo; Asia: China, India, Indonesia, Israel, Japan, Taiwan, Thailand; North America: Jamaica; Oceania: Australia; South America: Venezuela.
Not known to occur
Mexico, Korea
2025-10-08
Peronosclerospora maydis causes downy mildew in corn, producing infections that can stunt growth and deform plants. The pathogen can survive in fresh seed, enabling seed transmission, but it cannot survive in dried seed because the low moisture prevents its viability, making only fresh seed a pathway for infection.
Main: corn
Yes
PRSCMA-2, PRSCMA-4, McGEE, PRSCMA-5, PRSCMA-7, PRSCMA-8
Pathogen is only transmitted with freshly harvested immature seed that has not been dried. Once dried (>20%), the
pathogen is not transmitted.
PRSCMA-2, PRSCMA-4, McGEE, PRSCMA-5, PRSCMA-7, PRSCMA-8
Visual examination
PRSCMA-1
This test has not been validated or standardized
Metalaxyl
CABI CPC, PRSCMA-6, PRSCMA-9
Seed storage and drying to less than 20% mositure eliminated seed transmission.
Kenneth, RG. 1981. Downy Mildews of Graminaceous Crops. In, The Downy Mildews, ed. Spencer, DM. Academic Press, New York
Bonde, MR. 1982. Epidemiology of Downy Mildews of Maize, Sorghum and Pearl Millet. Tropical Pest Management 28:49-60
McGee, DC. 1988, Maize Diseases; A reference source for Seed Technoligists. American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN USA
Mikoshiba H, 1983. Studies on the control of downy mildew disease of maize in tropical countries of Asia. Technical Bulletin of the Tropical Agriculture Research Center, No.16:62 pp.
Semangoen H, 1970. Studies on downy mildew of maize in Indonesia with special reference to the perennation of the fungus. Indian Phytopathology, 23:307-320.
Lukman, R., Afifuddin, A. and Lübberstedt, T., 2016. Tracing the signature of Peronosclerospora maydis in maize seeds. Australasian Plant Pathology, 45(1), pp.73-82.
Peronosclerospora maydis In: Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Tantera DM, Bustaman M, Molina RP, 1986. Efficacy of three systemic fungicides against downy mildew (Peronosclerospora maydis (Rac.) Butler) of maize (Zea mays L.). Indonesian Journal of Crop Science, 2(1):37-50
Pakki, S. and Djaenuddin, N., 2019. The Effectiveness Combination of Resistant Varieties and Metalaxil Fungicide in Controlling Downy Mildew Disease (Peronosclerospora Maydis) in Maize Plant. Journal Hama dan Penyakit Tumbuhan Tropika, 19(1), p.287628.
Peronosclerospora sorghi
fungus
Sclerospora andropogonis-sorghi, Sclerospora graminicola var. andropogonis-sorghi, Sclerospora sorghi, Sorosporium andropogonis-sorghi
Worldwide
AL. AR, GA, IL, IN, KS, KY, LA, MD, MN, MS, MO, NE, NV, NM, OK, TN, TX
Mexico, Korea
2025-08-13
Peronosclerospora sorghi spreads when oospores in soil or plant debris germinate in cool, humid weather, releasing zoospores that enter through the roots and move throughout the plant. Infected leaves produce sporangia that release more zoospores, allowing the disease to spread to nearby plants and cause stunting, yellowing, and poor or sterile grain heads.
Main: sorghum, corn
Yes
PRSCSO-4, PRSCSO-5, PRSCSO-6, CABI CPC, McGEE, PRSCSO-7
Seed transmission mainly occurs on immature seed or freshly harvested seed that has not been dried., Oospores are not produced abundantly in corn.
Grow out is a standard method of the NSHS.
PRSCSO-4, PRSCSO-5, PRSCSO-6, CABI CPC, McGEE, PRSCSO-7
METHOD: Mz 6.1 Grow-out (Adenle and Cardwell, 2000) (formerly Cf 6.1)
NSHS USDA
This is a standard method of the NSHS.
chemical, culturalcal
PRSCSO-3, PRSCSO-6, CABI CPC
This pathogen appears to be a bigger problem in farmer-saved seed. Using certified/healthy seed is recommended. Metalaxyl treatment is effective. Use resistant varieties. Proper drying and storing is useful to prevent transmission.
Bonde, MR. 1982. Epidemiology of Downy Mildews of Maize, Sorghum and Pearl Millet. Tropical Pest Management 28:49-60
Adenle VO, Cardwell KF, 2000. Seed transmission of maize downy mildew (Peronosclerospora sorghi) in Nigeria. Plant Pathology, 49:628-634
Jones BL, Leeper JC, Frederiksen RA, 1972. Sclerospora sorghi in corn: its location in carpellate flowers and mature seeds. Phytopathology, 62:817-819.
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
McGee, DC. 1988, Maize Diseases; A reference source for Seed Technoligists. American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN USA
Muis, A., Ryley, M. J., Tan, Y. P., Suharjo, R., Nonci, N., Danaatmadja, Y., ... & Thines, M. (2023). P eronosclerospora neglecta sp. nov.—a widespread and overlooked threat to corn (maize) production in the tropics. Mycological Progress, 22(2), 12.
United Stated Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Protection Service National Seed Health System (USDA-APHIS NSHS) www.seedhealth.org
Odvody GN, Frederiksen RA, 1984. Use of systemic fungicides metalaxyl and fosetyl-Al for control of sorghum downy mildew in corn and sorghum in South Texas. I: seed treatment. Plant Disease, 68:604-607
Peronosclerospora sacchari
fungus
Sclerospora sacchari
Africa: Nigeria; Asia: China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Nepal, Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam; North Oceania: Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Timor-Leste.
Not known to occur.
Mexico, Korea
2023-08-21
Peronosclerospora saccharine is spread through seeds with high moisture content. Once the moisture drops below 20% the mycelium loses its viabilitiy.
Main: sugarcane, corn
Yes
PRSCSA-4, PRSCSA-6, McGEE
Pathogen is only transmitted with freshly harvested immature seed that has not been dried. Once dried (<20%), the pathogen is not transmitted.
PRSCSA-4, PRSCSA-6, McGEE
Visual examination of the embryo
PRSCSA-6
This test has not been validated or standardized.
Metalaxyl
CABI CPC
Seed storage and drying to less than 20% mositure eliminated seed transmission.
Bonde, MR. 1982. Epidemiology of Downy Mildews of Maize, Sorghum and Pearl Millet. Tropical Pest Management 28:49-60
Singh RS, Joshi MM, andChaube HS, 1968. Further evidence of the seedborne nature of Corn downy mildews and their possible control with chemicals. Plant Disease Reporter, 52:446-449.
McGee, DC. 1988, Maize Diseases; A reference source for Seed Technoligists. American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN USA
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Maize chlorotic mottle virus
virus
maize chlorotic mottle machlomovirus, Maize mottle virus, Peru corn virus
Africa: Congo, Ethiopis, Kenya, Mozambique, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda; Asia: China, Taiwan, Thailand; Europe: Spain; North America: Mexico, USA; South America: Argentina, Brazil, Ecuador Peru
HI, KS, NE, TX
China
2025-08-12
Maize chlorotic mottle virus infects maize, causing stunted growth and reduced ears, and can lead to Maize Lethal Necrosis Disease. It spreads mainly through insect vectors like thrips and rootworms, as well as via seed, soil, and contaminated tools, though seed transmission is low.
Main: corn; Other: millet, sugarcane, Johnson grass. Restricted to corn and sweet corn in nature. Poeaceae species and sugarcane were artificially inoculated
Yes
MCMV00-2, MCMV00-3, CABI CPC, EPPO, MCMV00-4, MCMV00-5, MCMV00-6, MCMV00-7
Transmission rates tend to be very low
MCMV00-2, MCMV00-3, CABI CPC, EPPO, MCMV00-4, MCMV00-5, MCMV00-6, MCMV00-7
NSHS METHOD: Mz 12.1 ELISA (formerly Cb 4.1)
MCMV00-2, NSHS USDA
ELISA with Maize chlorotic mottle virus antibodies have been used on seedlings 10-14 days after germination. This test has not been validated or standardized.
biological, cultural
CABI CPC
Resistant varieites are being developed. Crop rotation with sorghum has shown to reduce the incidence of MVMV00.
Jenson, S.G. et. al. 1991, Seed Transmission of Maize Chlorotic Mottle Virus. Plant Disease 75 (5); 497-498
Jiang, X.Q., et.al. 1992. Maize chlorotic mottle virus in Hawaiian-grown maize: vector relations, host range and associated viruses. Crop Protection 11: 248-254
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
OEPP/EPPO Global Database - European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization
Kimani, E. N., Kiarie, S. M., Micheni, C., Muriki, L. G., Miano, D. W., Macharia, I., ... & Wangai, A. (2021). Maize seed contamination and seed transmission of maize chlorotic mottle virus in Kenya. Plant Health Progress, 22(4), 496-502.
Cabanas, D., Watanabe, S., Higashi, C. H. V., and Bressan, A. 2013. Dissecting the mode of maize chlorotic mottle virus transmission (Tombusviridae: Machlomovirus) by Frankliniella williamsi (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 106:16-24.
Jensen, S. G. 1985. Laboratory transmission of maize chlorotic mottle virus by three corn rootworms. Plant Dis. 69:864-868.
Maluku, G., et al. 2015. Maize lethal necrosis (MLN), an emerging threat to maize-based food security in sub-Saharan Africa. Phytopathology 105:956-965.
United Stated Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Protection Service National Seed Health System (USDA-APHIS NSHS) www.seedhealth.org
Wheat streak mosaic virus
virus
Wheat streak mosaic potyvirus
Worldwide
Widespread in wheat regions
China, Korea, Chile
2023-08-25
The wheat curl mite (Aceria tosichella,K.), is the only known vector for Wheat streak mosaic virus. When symptoms are present, confirm the causal agent with laboratory diagnoses. Symptoms of this disease may be similar to other viral diseases or inconspicuous under unfavorable climatic conditions or plant physiological stress, requiring thorough laboratory analysis. Latency resulting in asymptotic plants, though documented (WSMV00-4), is not common. Expression may vary with climatic conditions, plant genetics, physiological stress, and plant pathogen strain. Literature showing that random sampling of apparently healthy plants to detect latent populations of this pathogen has not been found.
Primarily a virus of wheat. Other grasses and grains, such as oats, rye, barley, and millet may act as reservoirs for the virus. Not common in maize, though it has been reported in some cultivars.
No
WSMV00-4
Pathway not proven. This reference is the only one found with evidence of seed transmission and it was only found in one corn variety in laboratory experiments. Transmission rates were less than 0.1% and seed was not directly tested for the virus but indirectly by inoculating sap from seedlings to susceptible hosts before testing by ELISA. No literature found indicating natural infections of this virus. Corn is not an important host of the vector and the virus rarely causes damage to corn.
WSMV00-4
Hill JH, Martinson CA, Russell WA, 1974. Seed transmission of maize dwarf mosaic and wheat streak mosaic viruses in maize and response of inbred lines. Crop Science, 14:232-235.
High plains virus
virus
Wheat mosaic virus, Wheat high plains virus, Maize seed stripe virus, High plains wheat mosaic emaravirus
Argentina, Australia, Canada (AB), Chile, Iran, Ukraine,
Pacific Northwest, Midwest, FL
Chile, Korea
2023-08-29
Mite transmitted virus
oats, barley, wheat, rye, corn
Yes
WHPV00-7, WHPV00-2, ISFRPLD
The virus is naturally transmitted by the wheat curl mite (Aceria tosichella). HPWMoV is seed transmissible; very low seed transmission levels.
WHPV00-7, WHPV00-2, ISFRPLD
Grow out with ELISA confirmation on seedlings. Serology and molecular tests (e.g. RT PCR, conventional PCR) have only been used on leaves. Seeds were sown, and then leaves were tested.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD
This test has not been validated or standardized.
ISFRPLD, CABICPC
Resistant varieties are available.
Seifers, D.L., 2010. High Plains Disease. In, Compendium of Wheat Diseases and Pests, Third Edition, Eds. W. W. Bockus, R. L. Bowden, R. M. Hunger, W. L. Morrill, T. D. Murray and R. W. Smiley. The American Phytopathological Society. St. Paul, MN USA
Forster, R. L., Seifers, D. L., Strausbaugh, C. A., Jensen, S. G., Ball, E. M., and Harvey, T. L. 2001. Seed transmission of the High Plains virus in sweet corn. Plant Dis. 85:696-699.
Maize chlorotic dwarf virus
virus
Maize chlorotic dwarf machlovirus, Maize chlorotic dwarf Maize chlorotic dwarf virus group, Maize chlorotic dwarf ribotungrovirus, Maize chlorotic dwarf waikavirus, Ohio corn stunt agent
North America: USA
AL, AR, DE, GA, IL, IN, KY, LA, LA, MD, MS, MO, NC, OH, PA, SC, TN, TX, VA
China
2025-09-12
Maize chlorotic dwarf virus is transmitted by leafhoppers (predominantly Graminella nigrifrons). The virus overwinters in perennial hosts such as Johnsongrass, providing a reservoir for infection in subsequent growing seasons. Transmission occurs through leafhopper feeding. There is no evidence that seed is a pathway.
Main: corn; Other: foxtail, sorghum, johnsongrass
No
MCDV00-2, CABI CPC, DPV WEB, MCDV00-3, MCDV00-4, MCDV00-5
No evidence that seed is a pathway. Transmitted by leafhoppers only.
MCDV00-2, CABI CPC, DPV WEB, MCDV00-3, MCDV00-4, MCDV00-5
Brunt, AA, Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, MJ, Gibbs, AJ, Watson, L. and Zurcher, EJ. (eds.). Plant Viruses Online: Descriptions and Lists from the VIDE Database, Version: 16th 1997. http://bio-mirror.im.ac.cn/mirrors/pvo/vide/refs.htm
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Description of Plant Viruses ; http://dpvweb.net/dpv/
Nault, L.R., Gordon, D.T., Robertson, D.C. and Bradfute, O.E., 1976. Host range of maize chlorotic dwarf virus. Plant Disease Reporter, 60(5), pp.374-377.
Gordon, D.T. and Nault, L.R., 1977. Involvement of maize chlorotic dwarf virus and other agents in stunting diseases of Zea mays in the United States. Phytopathology, 67(1), pp.27-36.
Hunt, R.E., Nault, L.R. and Gingery, R.E., 1988. Evidence for infectivity of maize chlorotic dwarf virus and for a helper component in its leafhopper transmission. Phytopathology, 78(4), pp.499-504.
Maize streak virus
virus
Sugarcane streak virus, Cereal African streak virus, Maize mottle virus,
Maize streak monogeminivirus
India, Indonesia, Yemen, widespread in Africa
Not known to occur.
Korea
2023-08-21
No evidence that seed is a pathway for this virus. Transmitted by leafhoppers only. Maize streak virus is a quaratine pest in the USA
corn, sugarcane, oat, barley, rye, sorghum, wheat, grasses (Poaceae family)
No
MSV000-1, MSV000-2, MSV000-3, ISFRPLD
No evidence that seed is a pathway. Transmission by leafhoppers only
MSV000-1, MSV000-2, MSV000-3, ISFRPLD
Maize Streak Virus. In: Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Richardson, MJ. 1990. An Anotated List of Seed-Borne Disease. International Seed Testing Association. Zurich, Switzerland
Brunt, AA, Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, MJ, Gibbs, AJ, Watson, L. and Zurcher, EJ. (eds.). Plant Viruses Online: Descriptions and Lists from the VIDE Database, Version: 16th 1997. http://bio-mirror.im.ac.cn/mirrors/pvo/vide/refs.htm
Pantoea stewartii
bacterium
Aplanobacter stewartia, Bacillus stewartii, Bacterium stewartia, Erwinia stewartia, Pantoea stewartii subsp. Indologenes, Pantoea stewartii subsp. stewartii, Phytomonas stewartii, Pseudobacterium stewartii, Pseudomonas stewartii, Xanthomonas stewartii
Africa: Benin, Togo. Asia: China, India, Jordan, Malaysia, South Korea, Thailand, Vietnam. Europe: Italy, Russia, Slovenia. Americas: Canada, USA, Costa Rica, Mexico, Argentina, Bolivia, Guyana, Peru.
Widespread but not a lot in the northwest.
China, Mexico, South Korea, Vietnam
2024-04-12
Formerly Erwinia stewartii, this is an enterobacterial plant pathogen that causes Stewart’s wilt of maize. It is considered native to the Americas and has been introduced to other parts of the world by infested maize seeds (ERWIST-10).
Zea mays, all subspecies and types. Experimental inoculations into grasses, sudan grass and wheat
Yes
ERWIST-2, ERWIST-3, ERWIST-4, CABICPC, ISFRPLD, ERWIST-10, ERWIST-10
The seed transmission of Pantoea stewartii is well documented and accepted. Embryonic infection documented. Requires significant disease symptoms in field for seed transmission to occur.
ELISA is the NSHS standard method
ERWIST-2, ERWIST-3, ERWIST-4, CABICPC, ISFRPLD, ERWIST-10, ERWIST-10
Grow out, Semi-selective plating, PCR, ELISA
ERWIST-6, CABICPC, NSHSUSDA
ELISA is the NSHS standard method
Biological, Chemical
ERWIST-7, ERWIST-8, ERWIST-9, CABICPC
The use of resistant varieties is effective. Several physical treatments, chemicals and antibiotic treatments have been tested with limited success. Mitigation of corn flea beetle with chemicals or biologicals is also effective.
Ivanoff SS, 1933. Stewart's wilt disease of corn, with emphasis on the life history of Phytomonas stewartii in relation to pathogenesis. Journal of Agricultural Research, 47:749-770.
Rand FV, Cash LC, 1933. Bacterial wilt of corn. United States Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin, 362:1-32
Smith EF, 1914. Stewart's disease of sweet corn (maize). In: Vascular Diseases, 3. Washington, DC, USA: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 89-147.
Nechwatal, J., Friedrich‐Zorn, M., Theil, S., Gebauer, P., & Wensing, A. (2018). Validation of a specific PCR screening test for Pantoea stewartii subsp. stewartii in maize (Zea mays) samples. Bulletin OEPP, 48(1), 78–85. https://doi.org/10.1111/epp.12448
Block CC, Shepherd LM, Munkvold G, 2011. Comparison of nine PCR primer sets designed to detect Pantoea stewartii subsp. stewartii in maize. In: Phytopathology, 101. S16.
Munkvold, G.P., McGee, D.C. and Iles A., 1996. Effects of imidacloprid seed treatment of corn on foliar feeding and Erwinia stewartii transmission by the corn flea beetle. Plant Disease 80; 747-749
Pataky, et. al., 2005. Rates of seed treatment insecticides and control of Stewart's wilt in sweet corn. Plant Disease 89; 262-268
Kuhar, et. al. 2002. Control of corn flea beetle and Stewart's wilt in sweet corn with imidacloprid and thiamethoxam seed treatments. Crop Protection 21; 25-31
Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. nebraskensis
bacterium
Corynebacterium michiganense pv. nebraskense, Corynebacterium michiganense subsp. nebraskense, Corynebacterium nebraskense
Canada
Midwest states
China, Korea, Sudan
2023-08-03
Found in US Midwest where field corn is grown.
corn, sugarcane, sorghum, sudan grass.
Yes
CORBNE-2, CORBNE-3, CORBNE-1, CORBNE-4
Seed transmission plays a minor role where the disease is established and requires significant disease symptoms in the field for seed transmission to occur. The inefficient seed transmission is one reason the pathogen is only a moderate quarantine risk
Culture plating is a standard method of the NSHS
CORBNE-2, CORBNE-3, CORBNE-1, CORBNE-4
Culture plating, Molecular
NSHSUSDA, ISFRPLD
Culture Plating has been standardized and validated by the NSHS.
No
CORBNE-1
Crop rotation and the destruction of maize debris are recommended control practices. Resistance to Goss's wilt is common in corn hybrids
Biddle, J. A., McGee, D. C., and Braun, E. J. 1990. Seed transmission of Clavibacter michiganensis ssp. nebraskensis in corn. Plant Dis. 74:908- 911.
Schuster ML, 1972. Leaf freckles and wilt, a new corn disease. In: Proc. Annu. Corn Sorghum Res. Conf. 27. Washington D.C., USA: American Seed Trade Association. 176-191.
Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. nebraskensis. In: Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Osdaghi et al., (2022). clavibacter nebraskensis causing goss's wilt of maize: Five decades of detaining the enemy in the new world. Molecular Plant Pathology, 24(7), 675–692. Retrieved August, 2023
Maize dwarf mosaic virus
virus
Maize mosaic virus, European mosaic virus, Indian mosaic virus, Maize stripe mosaic virus, sorghum red stripe virus, maize dwarf mosaic potyvirus
Worldwide
Widespread
2025-08-04
Maize dwarf mosaic virus is transmitted by aphids in a nonpersistent manner and can also be spread through seed at low rates.
Main: sorghum, corn; Other: oats, millet, sugarcane.
Yes
MDMV00-1, MDMV00-2, MDMV00-3, MDMV00-4, MDMV00-5, DPV WEB, MDMV00-6, MDMV00-7, MDMV00-8, MDMV00-11
Transmission rates tend to be very low. Seed transmission of Maize dwarf mosaic virus is well documented in corn.
ELISA is a standard test of the NSHS.
MDMV00-1, MDMV00-2, MDMV00-3, MDMV00-4, MDMV00-5, DPV WEB, MDMV00-6, MDMV00-7, MDMV00-8, MDMV00-11
Yes
MDMV00-1, NSHS USDA, MDMV00-10
METHOD: Mz 11.1 ELISA (Iowa State University adaptation of Agdia Kit) (formerly Cb 3.1)
Biological, cultural
CABI CPC
Resistant varieties are developed. Good cultural practices (good tillage systems, greater plan density, early sowing) and sanitation help in the control of this virus and its vectors
Maize Dwarf Mosaic Virus. In: Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Hill JH, Martinson CA, Russell WA, 1974. Seed transmission of maize dwarf mosaic and wheat streak mosaic viruses in maize and response of inbred lines. Crop Science, 14:232-235.
Mikel, M.A., D'Arcy, C.J. and Ford, R.E. 1984. Seed transmission of maize dwarf mosaic virus in sweet corn. Phytopath Z.110: 185-191
Shepherd RJ, Holdeman QL, 1965. Seed transmission of the Johnsongrass strain of the sugarcane mosaic virus of corn. Plant Disease Reporter, 49:468-469.
Williams LE, Findley WR, Dollinger EJ, Ritter RM, 1968. Seed transmission studies of maize dwarf mosaic virus in corn. Plant Disease Reporter, 52:863-864.
Description of Plant Viruses ; http://dpvweb.net/dpv/
Madhulika Mishra, Rao GP, Upadhyaya PP, 1998. Identification and characterization of maize dwarf mosaic potyvirus in India. Indian Journal of Virology, 14(1):75-79b.
Storey, H.H., 1928. Transmission Studies of Maize Streak Disease. Annals of Applied Biology 15(1), pp.1-25.
Guadie, D., Knierim, D., Winter, S., Tesfaye, K. and Abraham, A., 2019. Survey for the identification and geographical distribution of viruses and virus diseases of maize (Zea mays L.) in Ethiopia. European Journal of Plant Pathology, 153(2), pp.429-439.
Zhang, Z.Y., Fu, F.L., Gou, L., Wang, H.G. and Li, W.C., 2010. RNA interference-based transgenic maize resistant to maize dwarf mosaic virus. Journal of Plant Biology, 53(4), pp.297-305.
United Stated Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Protection Service National Seed Health System (USDA-APHIS NSHS) www.seedhealth.org
Giolitti, F., Herrera, M.G., Madariaga, M. and Lenardon, S.L., 2005. DETECTION OF MAIZE DWARF MOSAIC VIRUS (MDMV). Maydica, 50, pp.101-104
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Sugarcane mosaic virus
virus
abaca mosaic potyvirus
abaca mosaic virus
European mosaic virus
Grass mosaic virus
maize dwarf mosaic potyvirus strain B
maize dwarf mosaic virus strain B
Sorghum red stripe virus
Sorghum concentric ring virus
sugarcane mosaic potyvirus
Worldwide in sugarcane growing regions
Fl, HA
-
2025-08-15
This virus is often mistaken for Sorghum mosaic virus, as both viruses produce similar symptoms in sugarcane. Its strains are generally host-specific. The virus is transmitted by aphids and is a component of the corn lethal necrosis complex, but it is not known to be seed-transmitted.
Main: sugarcane, corn; Other: soghum
Yes
SCMV00-2, CABI CPC, DPV WEB
The virus is naturally transmitted by aphids and through mechanical means; however, it can be present in maize seeds, occasionally detected in the pericarp and endosperm, with seed transmission rates reported between 0.5% and 4.8%.
SCMV00-2, CABI CPC, DPV WEB
ELISA, PCR
Test has not been standardized or validated.
biological, cultural
CABI CPC, SCMV00-3
Potyvirus sacchari in maize can be managed by planting certified virus-free seed, using resistant or tolerant varieties, controlling aphid vectors, removing infected crop residue, and practicing good sanitation to prevent mechanical spread. Regular field monitoring for symptoms and vectors also helps reduce virus impact.
Mikel, M.A., D'Arcy, C.J. and Ford, R.E. 1984. Seed transmission of maize dwarf mosaic virus in sweet corn. Phytopath Z.110: 185-191
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Description of Plant Viruses ; http://dpvweb.net/dpv/
Vamsi Krishna, G., Manoj Kumar, V., Kishore Varma, P., Bhavani, B., & Vijaya Kumar, G. (2023). Identification of resistance to Sugarcane mosaic virus, Sugarcane streak mosaic virus, and Sugarcane bacilliform virus in new elite sugarcane accessions in India. Frontiers in Microbiology, 14, 1276932.
Mycosphaerella zeae-maydis
fungus
Didymella maydis, Phoma zeae-maydis, Phyllosticta maydis, Phyllosticta zeae, Peyronellaea zeae-maydis, Didymella zeae-maydis
Africa: Kenya, South Africa; Europe: France; North America: Canada, USA; South America:, Bolivia, Ecuador
WI
Brazil
2025-09-29
Mycosphaerella zeae-maydis causes yellow leaf blight in corn. It primarily survives on infected crop debris, spreading via wind- and rain-dispersed spores.
Main: corn, sweet corn
No
MYCOZM-2, MYCOZM-3, CABI CPC, MYCOZM-4, MYCOZM-5, MYCOZM-6, MYCOZM-7
Seed is not known to be a pathway. This pathogen was shown to attack corn lines with Texas male sterility and is of relative minor consequences to species without this trait.
MYCOZM-2, MYCOZM-3, CABI CPC, MYCOZM-4, MYCOZM-5, MYCOZM-6, MYCOZM-7
Farr, D.F. and Rossman, A.Y. Fungal Databases, Systematic Mycology and Microbiology Laboratory, ARS, USDA. 2017, http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/
Arny, Worf, Ahrens and Lindsey, 1970. Yellow Leaf Blight in Wisconsin; It's History and the Reactions of Inbreds and Crosses to the Inciting Fungus (Phyllosticta sp.) Plant Disease Reporter 54;281-285
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
McGee, DC. 1988. Maize Diseases: A reference Source for Seed Technologists. APS Press, St. Paul, MN USA. 150 pp.
Mukunya, D. M., & Boothroyd, C. W. (1973). Mycosphaerella zeae-maydis sp. n., the sexual stage of Phyllosticta maydis. Phytopathology, 63(4), 529-32.
Jiménez-Díaz, R. M., & Boothroyd, C. W. (1979). Role of ascospores of Mycosphaerella zeae-maydis in the epidemics of yellow leaf blight of maize. Phytopathologia Mediterranea, 3-9.
Castor, L. L., Ayers, J. E., & Nelson, R. R. (1977). Controlled-environment studies of epidemiology of yellow leaf-blight of corn. Phytopathology, 67, 85-90.
Cercospora sorghi
fungus
Cercospora sorghi var. maydis
Worldwide
Southeast and Midwest states
-
2025-01-03
Cercospora sorghi is usually considered a minor disease, except where susceptible cultivars are grown Areas that are wet or humid and warm promote disease development on infected leaf tissue and provide abundant production of sports which are spread by wind and rain.
Main: poaceae speices: sorghum, Johnson grass, Sudan grass, corn
No
CABI CPC, RICH ISTA, McGEE
Seed is not known to be a pathway for this pathogen in this host.
CABI CPC, RICH ISTA, McGEE
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Richardson, MJ. 1990. An Annotated List of Seedborne Diseases. International Seed Testing Association, Zurich Switzerland.
McGee, DC. 1988, Maize Diseases; A reference source for Seed Technoligists. American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN USA
Pleospora herbarum
fungus
Too many to list, most commonly used names include Alternaria putrefaciens, Clasterosporium putrefaciens, Sporidesmium putrefaciens, Stemphyllium botryosum, Stemphylium herbarum.
Worldwide
Widespread
2023-08-21
Primarily a post harvest pathogen
Wide host range
No
No references found indicating seed is a pathway
Pseudomonas syringae pv. coronafaciens
bacterium
Bacterium coronafaciens, Chlorobacter coronafaciens, Phytomonas coronafaciens, Pseudomonas coronafaciens, Pseudomonas coronafaciens pv. zeae
Africa: Ethiopia, Kenya, Morocco, Zimbabwe; Asia: China, Japan, South Korea, Uzbekistan; Europe: Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Norway, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia, UK; North America: Canada, USA; Oceania: Australia, New Zealand; South America: Argentina, Brazil, Chile.
AK, AR, MN, WI
Korea, Thailand
2024-12-20
Pseudomonas syringae pv. coronafaciens is spread by wind and rain. Infection occurs in wounds. Seed transmission has not been recorded and is questionable as the pathogen is already well-distributed worldwide.
Main: oats, rye; Other: barley, wheat, corn, other wild grasses
No
No references found indicating that seed is a pathway. Corn is not a main host of this pathogen.
Xanthomonas vasicola pv. holcicola
bacterium
Bacterium holcicola, Phytomonas holcicola, Pseudomonas holcicola, Xanthomonas campestris pv. holcicola, Xanthomonas holcicola
Africa: Cote d'Ivoire, Ethipia, Gambia, Madagascar, Niger, South Africa, Togo; Asia: Bangladesh, India, Iran, Kazakhstan, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand; Europe: France, Romania, Russia, Ukraine; North America: Mexico, USA; Oceania: Australia, New Zealand, Solomon Islands; South America: Argentina, Brazil, Venezuela.
AZ, AR, IA, KS, MN, MT, NE, NM, ND, OK, OR, SD, TX, UT, VA, WA, WY
Korea
2025-10-08
Xanthomonas vasicola pv. holcicola causes bacterial leaf streak or blight in sorghum. Infected plants develop water-soaked streaks along leaves that later become necrotic, potentially reducing photosynthesis and crop yield. The pathogen is not seedborne and has no known insect vectors. Spread occurs primarily through rain splash, overhead irrigation, and mechanically with infected plant tissue. The bacterium can survive on crop residues and wild grasses, serving as a source of inoculum for subsequent seasons.
Main: sorghum, sudan grass, millet; Other: corn
No
CABI CPC, XANTHO-2
Seed is not known to be a pathway for this pathogen on any crop. Corn is a minor host for this pathogen.
CABI CPC, XANTHO-2
Botryosphaeria zeae
fungus
Macrophoma zeae, Physalospora zeae
Africa: South Africa; Europe: France; North America: USA; Oceania: Australia
IL, IN
Korea
2025-08-01
Botryosphaeria zeae causes gray ear rot of maize, typically under warm, humid conditions during and after flowering. The fungus overwinters on crop debris and infected residue, and spreads primarily through airborne spores and rain splash that infect ears via wounds or silk tissues.
corn, wheat
uncertain
PHYOZE-1, PHYOZE-3, PHYOZE-4, McGEE, PHYOZE-5, PHYOZE-6
Corn is not a significant seed host of Botryosphaeria zeae. While the fungus can be detected on seed in lab tests, field transmission through seed is rare (<1%), with infections mainly spreading from infected crop residue and plant debris in the environment.
PHYOZE-1, PHYOZE-3, PHYOZE-4, McGEE, PHYOZE-5, PHYOZE-6
Blotter paper
McGEE
This test has not been standardized or validated. Used in research only.
cultural
No references describing seed treatments found. Crop rotation is described for field management.
Farr, D.F. and Rossman, A.Y. Fungal Databases, Systematic Mycology and Microbiology Laboratory, ARS, USDA. 2018, http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/
Richardson MJ, 1990. An Annotated List of Seed-borne Disease. International Seed Testing Association, Zurich, Switzerland
UllStrup, A.J. 1953. Several Ear Rots of Corn. In; A Yearbook of Agriculture. USDA Publication, USA
McGee, DC. 1988, Maize Diseases; A reference source for Seed Technoligists. American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN USA
Bezuidenhout, Henrietta and Marasas, W. F. O. (1978). Botryosphaeria zeae: the cause of grey ear rot of maize (Zea mays) in South Africa. Phytophylactica, 10(1), 21-24.
University of Illinois Extension. (1991). Corn ear and kernel rots.
Kabatiella zeae
fungus
Aureobasidium zeae
Worldwide in temperate regions
Midwest states
Korea
2022-11-29
Not known to occur in Australia
corn
No
KABAZE-1, KABAZE-3, KABAZE-4, ISFRPLD
Pathway not proven. Though two references above (KABAZE-3 and KABAZE-4) indicate that Kabatiella zeae may be introduced on seed, no data to verify seed transmission or research only used artificial inoculation methods and speculated that seed may be a means of dispersal. KABAZE-1 states that Kabatiella zeae has not been detected on seed. No evidence found indicating seed is a pathway in nature.
KABAZE-1, KABAZE-3, KABAZE-4, ISFRPLD
Kabatiella zeae In: Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Reifschneider FJB; Arny DC, 1979. Seed infection of maize (Zea mays) by Kabatiella zeae. Plant Disease Reporter, 63:352-354
Jones DR, Baker RHA, 2007. Introductions of non‐native pathogens into Great Britain, 1970–2004. Plant Pathology 56: 891– 910.
Fusarium redolens
fungus
Fusarium oxysporum var. redolens, Fusarium redolens var. solani, Fusarium solani var. redolens
Africa: Algeria, Tunisia; Asia: China, Iran, Japan, Pakistan, Turkey; Europe: Czechia, Finland, Netherlands, Poland, Sweden, UK; North America: Canada, USA,; Oceania: New Zealand.
MT, ND.
Korea
2024-09-04
No references found indicating seed is a pathway. Fusarium redolens is soil-borne.
An economic pathogen of carnation. Though reported on other vegetable and grain crops, it is not considered an economic pathogen of many hosts or its economic importance is not known.
No
No references found indicating that seed is a pathway.
Physoderma maydis
fungus
Cladochytrium maydis, Physoderma zeae-maydis
Worldwide
Widespread
Korea
2022-06-21
A Chytrid fungus with mobile zoospores. Primarily soil borne and in wet soils.
corn
No
PHYDMA-1, PHYDMA-2, PHYDMA-3, RICHISTA, McGEE
Pathway not proven. References listing the pathogen as possibly seed borne, did not show evidence to support the claim or concluded seed is not an important means of dispersal.
PHYDMA-1, PHYDMA-2, PHYDMA-3, RICHISTA, McGEE
Resistant varieties are available.
Physoderma maydis In: Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Broyles JW, 1959. Incidence of brown spot of corn in Mississippi in 1957 and estimations of its effect on yield. Plant Disease Reporter, 43:18-21.
Varshney, JL 1988. Pathogenic fungi recorded in maize crop raised from exotic germplasm. Indian Phytopathol. 41:242-244.
McGee, DC. 1988, Maize Diseases; A reference source for Seed Technoligists. American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN USA
Bipolaris sacchari
fungus
Drechslera sacchari, Helminthosporium sacchari,Helminthosporium ocellum, Cercospora sacchari,Bipolaris stenospila, Helminthosporium stenospilum,Drechslera stenospila, Bipolaris ocella, Helminthosporium ocellum, Drechslera ocella
Worldwide, especially in tropic and subtropic regions
AL, FL, GA, HI, LA, MD
Korea
2022-10-09
sugarcane, millet
No
DRECSA-2
Although Subbaiah, et.al.,1982, claim to have isolated Bipolaris sacchari from corn seed in India, there are no other references indicating that this fungus is a pathogen of corn or is found on seed. Seeds were from local production and it is unknown whether these seeds were cleaned or conditioned as a seed crop. CABI, 2018, considers this fungus to be of low economic importance.
DRECSA-2
Blotter incubation
DRECSA-2
This method has not been standardized or validated.
Subbaiah PV; Shetty HS; Safeeulla KM, 1982. Incidence of seed-borne fungi in maize (Zea mays L.) and their significance. Indian Journal of Microbiology, 22:57-60
Claviceps gigantea
fungus
Sphacelia sp.
Mexico
Not known to occur
Korea
2025-08-05
Claviceps gigantea can be carried and spread through seed, especially when sclerotia replace kernels and are harvested with the maize. These contaminated seeds are a key way the fungus spreads.
Main: corn
Yes
CLAVGI-2, CLAVGI-3, CLAVGI-4, CABI CPC
Sclerotia of this fungus replace kernels, but are easily identified and easily removed from seed. This disease is of relatively low importance and is isolated to mountainous regions of Mexico.
Physical purity tests, Visual examination of seeds
CLAVGI-2, CLAVGI-3, CLAVGI-4, CABI CPC
Visual examination of seed
CABI CPC
AOSA rules or ISTA rules for testing seed lots for physical purity should identify all and any sclerotia from a fungal infection.
A quality seed production operation that includes seed cleaning and conditioning, and seed testing should remove all sclerotia from seed lots. Avoid seed production in Mexico mountain regions.
Fuentes SF; de la Isla ML; Ullstrup AJ; Rodriguez AE, 1964. Claviceps gigantea, a new pathogen of maize in Mexico. Phytopathology, 54:379-381.
Ullstrup AJ, 1973. Maize ergot: a disease with a restricted ecological niche. PANS 19:389-391
Richardson MJ, 1990. An annotated list of seed-borne diseases. Zurich, Switzerland: The International Seed-Testing Association, Zurich, Switzerland
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Setophoma terrestris
fungus
Pyrenochaeta terrestris, Phoma terrestris
Africa: Senegal; Asia: India, Israel; Europe: Greece, Netherlands, Poland; North America: Mexico, USA; Oceania: Australia; South America: Argentina, Venezuela.
DE, IA, MD, VA.
Korea
2024-09-24
Ubiquitous soil fungus. Often a secondary invader of plant roots when weakened by other pathogens.
Wide host range, though only producing symptoms and disease on onion, corn and rice.
No
PYRETE-2, ISFRPLD, PYRETE-5
The fungus causes red root rot in maize in association with Pythium and Fusarium species. Roots and the basal part of the maize stalk, primarily under the ground are infected (ISF). Seed is not known to be a pathway.
PYRETE-2, ISFRPLD, PYRETE-5
Farr, D.F. and Rossman, A.Y. Fungal Databases, Systematic Mycology and Microbiology Laboratory, ARS, USDA. 2017, http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/
Levic, J., Petrovic, T., Stankovic, S., & Ivanovic, D. (2013). The incidence of Pyrenochaeta terrestris in root of different plant species in Serbia. Zbornik Matice Srpske Za Prirodne Nauke, 2013(125), 21–30.
Fusarium poae
fungus
Fusarium sporotrichiella, Fusarium sporotrichiella var. poae, Fusarium tricinctum f.sp. poae, Sporotrichum poae, Sporotrichum anthophilum.
Worldwide in temperate regions
Widespread, primarily in northern states
Korea
2022-04-06
One of many Fusarium spp. isolated from grains and grasses in temperate regions of the world.
pea, grains, corn, grasses. Reported on several vegetables under some conditions. Vegetables are not listed below as the fungus is primarily opportunistic and secondary.
No
FUSAPO-8, ISFRPLD
Pathway not proven. Though Fusarium poae is one of many species of fusaria reported on this host and if seed is not properly handled, conditioned and stored, conidia may be found on seeds. The fungus is commonly soil borne and there were no references found indicating that seed is an important means of spread.
FUSAPO-8, ISFRPLD
Blotter incubation
This test has not been validated or standardized
Seed treatments (captan, thiram)
Common seed production practices, careful harvest, seed cleaning, conditioning, seed treatment and proper storage should decrease any risk from this pathogen.
Stenocarpella maydis
fungus
Diplodia maydicola, Diplodia maydis, Diplodia zeaeDiplodia zeae-maydis, Hendersonia zeae,Macrodiplodia zeae, Phaeostagonosporopsis zeae, Sphaeria maydis,Sphaeria zeae
Worldwide
Widespread, primarily in eastern corn growing states
Chile
2023-08-25
Resistant varieties of corn have reduced the importance of this disease
corn
Yes
DIPDMA-3, DIPDMA-4, CABICPC
Seed as a pathway is well established and accepted in corn, though management of the disease in the field and resistant varieties has reduced the risk of the disease in corn production, CABI, 2023.
Culture plating is the standard method of the NSHS.
DIPDMA-3, DIPDMA-4, CABICPC
Culture plating
DIPDMA-5
This is the standard method of the NSHS.
Seed treatments, many fungicides are affective
CABICPC
Resistant varieties are common. Integrated pest management including crop rotation, early tillage, fertility, and sanitation.
Richardson MJ, 1990. An Annotated List of Seed-borne Disease. International Seed Testing Association, Zurich, Switzerland
McGee, DC. 1988. Maize Diseases: A reference Source for Seed Technologists. APS Press, St. Paul, MN USA. 150 pp.
Seed Health Testing Method for Stenocarpella maydis Mz 1.1 National Seed Health System, 2019. www.seedhealth.org
Heterodera zeae
nematode
-
Africa: Egypt; Asia: Afghanistan, China, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Nepal, Pakistan, Thailand; Europe: Greece, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain; North America: USA.
MD, VA, PA
Korea
2024-09-14
Cyst nematodes are root pathogens, Cyst nematode primarily move through flooding water and drainage. Movement of infected material and soil also important. Seed is not known to be a pathway.
Main: corn; Other: oats, barley, rice, millets, sorghum, wheat.
No
HETDZE-2, CABICPC, HETDZE-3
Seed is not known to be a pathway.
HETDZE-2, CABICPC, HETDZE-3
Fusarium culmorum
fungus
Fusarium culmorum f. 1, Fusarium culmorum var. leteius, Fusarium culmorum var. majus, Fusarium roseum, Fusarium roseum cv. culmorum, Fusarium roseum f.sp. cerealis cv. culmorum, Fusisporium culmorum
Worldwide
Widespread
Korea
2022-11-22
A common soil inhabitant and strong sapropic ability on many crops. Usually causing disease problems on grains and grasses, especially with other pathogenic diseases or in saturated soils. Also produces mycotoxins.
Primarily grains and grasses. Reported on a wide range of hosts, but usually as a probable saprophyte. Only primary hosts listed below.
Yes
FUSACU-1, FUSACU-4
Fusarium culmorum is one of several fusaria that can be found on corn grain. It is common in Canada and northern Europe but not common in seed production areas in the US (Munkvold, personal communication, 2019).
Blotter incubation.
FUSACU-1, FUSACU-4
Blotter incubation
FUSACU-10
A standard test for seed health for Fusarium spp. is described.
Seed Treatments (biological and chemical)
FUSACU-1
Common seed conditioning practices in the corn seed industry (gravity separation and color sorting) are effective for all fusaria that may be associated with seed corn (Munkvold, personnel communication, 2019)
Fusarium culmorum In: Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
McGee, DC. 1988. Maize Diseases: A reference Source for Seed Technologists. APS Press, St. Paul, MN USA. 150 pp.
Seed Health Testing Method for Fusarium Mz 7.1 National Seed Health System, 2019. www.seedhealth.org
Heterodera avenae
nematode
Bidera avenae, Bidera ustinovi, Heterodera major, Heterodera schachtii, Heterodera ustinovi
Worldwide
CA, CO, ID, MT, OH, OR, UT, WA
Korea
2024-09-14
Seed is not known to be a pathway.
Main: oats, barley, rye, wheat; Other: grasses, corn
No
CABICPC, HETDMA-2
Seed is not a pathway for cyst nematodes.
CABICPC, HETDMA-2
Curvularia tsudae
fungus
Cochliobolus australiensis, Pseudocochliobolus australiensis
Asia, Africa, Australia
Not known to occur
Korea
2024-11-26
Often confused with Curvularia australiensis, another leaf blight of grass that occurs in Asia, Africa and Australia. Also not known to occur in the US (ARS GRIN)
poaceae grasses, barley, rice, corn
No
No references found indicating seed is a pathway. The similar pathogen, Curvularia australiensis, however, has been reported seed borne in some hosts, but not corn. (CABI, CPC).
Blotter incubation has been used for Curvularia australiensis testing.
Dithane or metalaxyl + mancozeb are both effective fungicides at suppressing Curvularia australiensis on wheat seed.
Rice stripe virus
virus
Rice stripe tenuivirus
Asia, Russia
Not known to occur
Korea
2023-08-21
Transmitted by leafhoppers and plant hoppers. Difficult to transmit mechanically and it is not seed transmitted.
Primarily rice. Reported naturally on wheat, corn and millet
No
RSV00-1, RSV00-2, ISFRPLD
Seed is not a pathway for rice stripe virus. Transmitted in a persistent manner by leafhoppers and plant hoppers. Corn is not an important host for this virus.
RSV00-1, RSV00-2, ISFRPLD
Rice stripe virus. In: Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Brunt, AA, Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, MJ, Gibbs, AJ, Watson, L. and Zurcher, EJ. (eds.). Plant Viruses Online: Descriptions and Lists from the VIDE Database, Version: 16th 1997. http://bio-mirror.im.ac.cn/mirrors/pvo/vide/refs.htm
Enterobacter dissolvens
bacterium
Aerobacter dissolvens, Aplanobacter dissolvens, Bacterium dissolvens, Erwinia dissolvens, Phytomonas dissolvens, Pseudomonas dissolvens
Africa: India; Europe: Bulgaria, Spain; North America: Canada, USA.
Widespread
Thailand
2024-09-13
Main: sorghum, corn, tobacco
No
ERWIDI-3
Seed is not known to be a pathway
ERWIDI-3
McGee, DC. 1988. Maize Diseases: A reference Source for Seed Technologists. APS Press, St. Paul, MN USA. 150 pp.
Cochliobolus heterostrophus race T
fungus
Bipolar maydays race T, Cochliobolus heterostrophus race T
Worldwide
Widespread
Thailand
2024-11-01
Thailand lists this pathogen as Bipolaris maydis race T. Primarily a pathogen in tropical or semi-tropical climates.
Corn with Texas male sterile cytoplasms are sucuseptible to race T.
Yes
COCHHE-1, COCHHE-2, COCHHE-3, COCHHE-4
Only Texas male sterile cytoplasms are susceptible to this pathogen. Normal cytoplasmic corns are not susceptible. Seed is known to be a pathway.
Freezing blotter is the NSHS standard test
COCHHE-1, COCHHE-2, COCHHE-3, COCHHE-4
Freezing blotter, Agar plating
COCHHE-1
Freezing blotter is the standard test of the NSHS.
Fungicide seed treatments (maneb, captan, carboxin and thiram, propiconazole)
COCHHE-5, COCHHE-6
McGee, DC. 1988. Maize Diseases: A reference Source for Seed Technologists. APS Press, St. Paul, MN USA. 150 pp.
Cochliobolus heterostrophus race T. In: Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Boothroyd CW. 1971. Transmission of Helminthosporium maydis race T by infected corn seed. Phytopathology, 61:747-748.
Kommedahl T and Lang DS, 1971. Seedling wilt of corn from kernels naturally infected with Helminthosporium maydis in Minnesota. Plant Disease Reporter, 55:371-373.
Kommedahl T and Lang DS, 1973. Effect of temperature and fungicides on survival of corn grown from kernels infected with Helminthosporium maydis. Phytopathology, 63:138-140
White DG and Ellett CW, 1971. Helminthosporium maydis seedling blight of popcorn. Plant Disease Reporter, 55:382-384.
Dickeya paradisiaca
bacterium
Brenneria paradisiaca, Erwinia carotovora var. paradisiaca, Erwinia chrysanthemi, Erwinia chrysanthemi pv. paradisiaca, Erwinia musae, Erwinia paradisiaca.
Asia: India; North America: Cuba, Guatemala, Honduras, Jamaica, Panama; Oceania: Papua New Guinea; South America: Colombia, Venezuela.
Not known to occur
Thailand
2024-09-11
Primarily a pathogen of banana.
Main: banana, pepper, corn, begonia, and several tropical plants
No
RICHISTA
No references found indicating seed is a pathway.
RICHISTA
Pantoea agglomerans
bacterium
Bacterium beticola, Bacterium herbicola Geilinger, Bacterium typhi-flavum Breed, Corynebacterium beticola, Enterobacter agglomerans, Enterobacter agglomerans pv. millettiae, Erwinia herbicola, Erwinia herbicola pv. millettiae, Erwinia lathyri, Magrou 1937 Erwinia mangiferae, Erwinia millettiae, Erwinia vitivora, Flavobacterium herbicola, Flavobacterium rhenanum, Flavobacterium trifolii, Kurthia baccarinii, leaf dieback of garlic, Pantoea agglomerans pv. millettiae, Phytomonas beticola, Phytomonas itoana, Pseudomonas herbicola, Pseudomonas itoana, Pseudomonas trifolii, Xanthomonas cosmosicola, Xanthomonas indica, Xanthomonas itoana, Xanthomonas maydis, Xanthomonas penniseti, Xanthomonas rubrisorghi, Rangaswami, Prasad & Eswaran 1961 Xanthomonas tagetis, Xanthomonas trifolii
Asia: China, Israel, Saudi Arabia. Europe: Austria, Germany, Italy, Poland, United Kingdom. N. America: Barbados, Canada, Cuba. New Zealand. South America: Chile, Venezuela
FL, GA, NE, NY, OR, PA, SC, UT, WA, WI
Thailand
2024-05-01
Thailand referred to the disease as Halo blight of corn. Pathogen appears to be primarily a post harvest invader. (CABI, 2020). Thailand restricts this pathogen on corn only.
Main: apple, garlic, European pear, and pineapple. Reported (post harvest) on other fruit crops, grains, vegetables.
No
ERWIHE-1, ERWIHE-2
Only one reference found indicating that corn may be a host of the pathogen (McGee, 1988), but detection on seed was not reported.
ERWIHE-1, ERWIHE-2
Pseudomonas syringae pv. lapsa
bacterium
Chlorobacter lapsus, Phytomonas lapsa, Pseudomonas lapsa
Egypt, Nigeria, China, India, Pakistan, Germany
CA
Thailand
2022-12-01
sugarcane, sorghum, corn, wheat
No
PSDMSL-1, PSDMSL-4, PSDMSL-5
Seed has been reported as a possible pathway for this pathogen. The pathogen is economically unimportant and has not been reported in the US since the 1940's.
PSDMSL-1, PSDMSL-4, PSDMSL-5
Blotter Incubation
PSDMSL-1
This method has been validated or standardized.
Organomercury disinfectants were once used, but are not available.
McGee, DC. 1988. Maize Diseases: A reference Source for Seed Technologists. APS Press, St. Paul, MN USA. 150 pp.
Ark, P.A., 1941. Persistance of Phytomonas lapsa on seed of field corn. Plant Dis. Rep. 25:202
Rangarajan and Chakravarti, 1967. A strain of Pseudomonas lapsa isolated from corn seed \s causing bacterial stock rot of corn in India. Plant Dis. Rep. 51:764-766
Herbaspirillum rubrisubalbicans
bacterium
Pseudomonas rubrisubalbicans, Bacterium rubrisubalbicans, Phytomonas rubrisubalbicans, Xanthomonas rubrisubalbicans
Africa: Angonal, Benin, Burundi, Central African Republic, Cote d'Ivorie, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Niger, Reunion, Tanzania, Togo; Asia: China, Japan, Sri Lanka, Thailand; North America: Barbados, Cuba, Guadeloupe, Jamaica, Martinique, Nicaragua, Panama, Puerto Rico, USA; Oceania: Australia, Fiji, New Zealand; South America: Brazil, Colombia, Peru, Venezuela.
FL, LA, TX
Thailand
2024-09-14
No evidence that seed is a pathway. Thailand regulated pest list uses P. rubrisbalbicans.
sugarcane, sorghum, corn
No
PSDMRU-1, CABICPC, ISHI-ISF
Seed is not known to be a pathway.
PSDMRU-1, CABICPC, ISHI-ISF
Pseudomonas syringae pv. striafaciens
bacterium
Bacterium striafaciens, Chlorobacter striafaciens, Phytomonas striafaciens, Pseudomonas striafaciens
Africa: South Africa, Zimbabwe; Asia: Japan, North Korea, South Korea; Europe: Germany; North America: Canada, Mexico, USA; Oceania: Australia; South America: Argentina, Colombia.
Not known to occur
Thailand
2024-12-30
This pathogen is most likely the same as Pseudomonas syringae pv. coronafaciens. Research by Barta and Willis 2005, examined the relationship between Pseudomonas syringae pvs. coronafaciens, striafaciens, and garcae, showing they are highly similar at a molecular level. While pv. Striafaciens lack the tabtoxin biosynthetic region; their overall physiological traits and pathogenic behaviors are alike, indicating these pathovars may be taxonomically redundant (PSDMST-2).
Main: oat, barley, corn
No
No references found indicating seed is a pathway.
Gibberella avenacea
fungus
Fusarium avenaceum, Fusarium avenaceum f.sp. fabae, Fusarium avenaceum subsp. aywerte, Fusarium roseum var. avenaceum
Worldwide, primarily in temperate regions.
AZ, CA, CO, CT, ID, MT, NV, NY, ND, TX, WA, WY
Thailand
2025-10-23
One of many Fusaria, Gibberella's that may contaminate kernels.
Wide host range. Main: Fabaceae and Poaceae family, as well as some Brassicaceae and Cucurbitaceae.
Yes
GIBBAV-1, GIBBAV-7, GIBBAV-4
One of many Gibberella spp. and Fusarium spp. that can be found on corn kernels, although this pathogen is less common than others. No reports on seed transmission were found.
Blotter paper is the NSHS standard test.
GIBBAV-1, GIBBAV-7, GIBBAV-4
Agar plating, Grow out, Blotter paper
NSHSUSDA, GIBBAV-8
Fungicide shown effective in subterranean clover and wheat.
GIBBAV-11, GIBBAV-12
Seed treatments were successful for clover and wheat.
Gibberella avenacea In: Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Bottalico A; Logrieco A; Visconti A, 1989. Fusarium species and their mycotoxins in infected corn in Italy. Mycopathologia, 107:85-92
Richardson MJ, 1990. An Annotated List of Seed-borne Disease. International Seed Testing Association, Zurich, Switzerland
Singh, D. V., Mathur, S. B. and Neergaard, P. 1974. Seed health testing of maize. Evaluation of testing techniques with particular reference to Drechslera maydis. Seed Sci. Technol. 2:349-365.
McGee DC; Kellock AW, 1974. Fusarium avenaceum, a seed-borne pathogen of subterranean clover roots. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 25:549-557.
Hutcheon JA; Jordan VWL, 1992. Fungicide timing and performance for Fusarium control in wheat. Brighton Crop Protection Conference, Pests and Diseases ,Vol. 2., 633-638
Gibberella zeae
fungus
Fusarium graminearum Schwabe, Fusarium graminearum, Fusarium roseum, Fusarium roseum f.sp. cerealis, Fusarium roseum var. graminearum, Gibbera saubinettii, Gibberella saubinetii, Sphaeria zeae Schwein.
Worldwide
Widespread
Thailand
2022-11-22
One of many Fusariium spp. and Gibberella spp. that may contaminate kernels.
Primarily a cereal grain pathogen with a wide host range.
Yes
GIBBZE-1, GIBBZE-2, GIBBZE-4
This pathogen is seed borne on corn kernels and affects germination, however the transmission of the fungus to seedlings has not been clearly demonstrated in nature.
Culture plating is a temporary standard method for the NSHS. Blotter paper is used for other Fusarium/Giberella spp. in the NSHS.
GIBBZE-1, GIBBZE-2, GIBBZE-4
Agar plating, Grow out, Blotter paper
GIBBZE-2, GIBBZE-5, NSHSUSDA
Blotter paper is the standard method of the NSHS
Fungicide seed treatments, culture control
GIBBZE-1
Gibberella zeae. In: Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
McGee, DC. 1988. Maize Diseases: A reference Source for Seed Technologists. APS Press, St. Paul, MN USA. 150 pp.
Kabeere F; Hampton JG; Hill MJ, 1997. Transmission of Fusarium graminearum (Schwabe) from maize seeds to seedlings. Seed Science and Technology, 25:245-252.
Abbas HK; Mirocha CJ, 1986. Survival of Fusarium graminearum on corn stored at low temperature. Plant Disease, 70:78
Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae
bacterium
Many
Worldwide
Widespread
Thailand, China, Korea
2022-12-01
Seed is known to be a pathway on several crops. Thailand lists this pathogen as prohibited on corn. China lists this pathogen (Pseudomonas oryzicola) as prohibited on rice.
Wide host range. Important vegetable and agronomic crops listed below.
No
PSDMSY-4
No evidence that seed is a pathway.
PSDMSY-4
McGee, DC. 1988. Maize Diseases: A reference Source for Seed Technologists. APS Press, St. Paul, MN USA. 150 pp.
Maize yellow stripe virus
virus
Maize chlorotic stunt virus, Maize fine stripe virus
Egypt, Jordan
Not known to occur
Thailand
2024-04-19
Maize yellow stripe virus has several similarities with viruses of the genus Tenuivirus, but is persistently transmitted by a leafhopper, Cicadulina chinai.
corn
No
No references found indicating seed is a pathway for this virus
MYSV00-1
Mahmoud, A., Royer, M., Granier, M., Ammar, E.-D., Thouvenel, J.-C., & Peterschmitt, M. (2007). Evidence for a segmented genome and partial nucleotide sequences of maize yellow stripe virus, a proposed new tenuivirus. Archives of Virology, 152(9), 1757–1762.
Cercospora zeae-maydis
fungus
Cercospora sorghi var. maydis
Africa: Cameroon, Congo, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe; Asia: China, Nepal; North America: Canda, Costa Rica, Mexico, Trinidad and Tobago, USA; South America: Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela.
CO, IA, IL, IN, KS, KY, MN, NY, NC, OH, PA, SC, VI, WI.
Thailand
2024-09-02
Cercospora zeae-maydis is only known to infect corn, and seed is not reported as a pathway. CXXXX overwinters on infested corn residue. After periods of high humidity, the fungus produces conidia in infested debris which then can be wind-blown to infect newly planted crops.
corn
No
CERCZM-1, CABICPC, RICHISTA, CERCZM-5
Seed is not known to be a pathway. There is no evidence for transmission of Cerospora zeae-maydis by seeds. Fungal spores from plant debris serve as primary inoculum (CERCZM-1).
Agar plating is the standard method of the NSHS
CERCZM-1, CABICPC, RICHISTA, CERCZM-5
Agar plating
CERCZM-3, CERCZM-4
Although Cercospora zeae-maydis is not seed borne. Some countries require that seeds be tested for the presence of spores on the seed surface.
Cultural
CABICPC, CERCZM-6, CERCZM-7
Crop rotation and deep ploughing can help reduce inoculum. Resistant varieties are suggested as well as fungicides to prevent and reduce the rate of disease.
McGee, DC. 1988. Maize Diseases: A reference Source for Seed Technologists. APS Press, St. Paul, MN USA. 150 pp.
Beckman, P. M., & Payne, G. A. (1982). External growth, penetration, and development of Cercospora zeae-maydis in corn leaves. Phytopathology, 72(7), 810-815.
Seed Health Testing Method for Cercospora zeae-maydis Mz 13.1 National Seed Health System, 2019. www.seedhealth.org
Cercospora zeae-maydis. In: Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Huff, C. A., Ayers, J. E., & Hill Jr, R. R. (1988). Inheritance of resistance in corn(Zea mays) to gray leaf spot. Phytopathology, 78(6), 790-794.
ur Rehman, F., Adnan, M., Kalsoom, M., Naz, N., Husnain, M. G., Ilahi, H., ... & Ahmad, U. (2021). Seed-borne fungal diseases of maize (Zea mays L.): A review. Agrinula: Jurnal Agroteknologi dan Perkebunan, 4(1), 43-60.
Ascochyta maydis
fungus
Bulgaria, Mauritius
IL
Thailand
2024-06-23
Distribution information from ASCOMA-1 and ASCOMA-2
corn
No
ASCOMA-1
Seed is not known to be a pathway
ASCOMA-1
McGee, DC. 1988. Maize Diseases: A reference Source for Seed Technologists. APS Press, St. Paul, MN USA. 150 pp.
Barley stripe mosaic virus
virus
Barley stripe mosaic hordeivirus, Barley false stripe virus, Barley mild stripe virus, Barley mosaic virus, Barley yellow stripe, Oat stripe mosaic virus
Worldwide
Widespread
Thailand
2025-02-07
Thailand prohibited pathogen list refers to the pathogen as Barley stripe mosaic hordeivirus. It is on the EPPO A2 quarantine list. Seed transmitted and mechanically transmitted to other grains.
Main: barley; Other: wheat, durum
No
BSMV00-2, BSMV00-13
No evidence that corn seed is a pathway for this virus. Corn may only be a host after artificial inoculation of plants.
BSMV00-2, BSMV00-13
Chloris striate mosaic virus
virus
Chloris striate mosaic geminivirus, Chloris striate mosaic intergeminivirus, Wheat (Australian) striate mosaic virus
Australia
Not known to occur
Thailand
2024-09-05
Leafhoppoer transmission only. No evidence that seed is a pathway for this virus.
poaceae grasses, wheat, oat, barley, corn
No
DPVWEB
No evidence that seed is a pathway.
DPVWEB
Phaeocytostroma ambiguum
fungus
Phaeocytosporella zeae, Sphaeropsis ambigua, Phaeocytostroma istrica
Hungary, Australia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Spain and Portugal
IL, IN
Thailand
2022-12-01
corn
No
PHCSAM-2
Pathway not proven. Research was done on artificially inoculated seeds under laboratory conditions. No evidence of seed transmission in nature.
PHCSAM-2
Grow out
PHCSAM-2
Grow outs were used in research. This method has not been validated or standardized.
McGee, DC. 1988. Maize Diseases: A reference Source for Seed Technologists. APS Press, St. Paul, MN USA. 150 pp.
Pestalosphaeria gubae
fungus
Neopestalotiopsis foedans, Pestalozzia foedans, Pestalotiopsis foedans, Pestalotiopsis chamaecyparidis, Pestalosphaeria gubae,Pestalosphaeria hansenii, Pestalotiopsis shiraiana
Africa: Cameroon; Asia: China, India, Japan, South Korea; Europe: Poland; Oceania: Australia; South America: Chile.
Not known to occur
Thailand
2024-12-16
Corn is not known to be a host. CABI CPC lists corn as a possible host but the reference is for P. neglecta.
woody plants, conifers, fruiting trees
No
CABICPC, ARSGRIN
Not a host. No literature found indicating this is a pathogen on corn. CABI CPC lists corn as a possible host but cites a first report of Pestalotia neglecta on corn in Cameroon.
CABICPC, ARSGRIN
Phaeosphaeria maydis
fungus
Metasphaeria maydis, Sphaerulina maydis, Leptosphaeria zeicola
Asia: India; North America: Mexico, USA; South America: Brazil, Peru
FL
Thailand
2024-12-16
Disease is restricted to certain areas where rainfall is high and temperatures are low at night). Distribution information from USDA FD.
corn
No
RICHISTA, PHSPMA-1, PHSPMA-2
Seed is not known to be a pathway. "Basic information on dispersal, overwintering, and survival, and tempera- ture, light, and moisture requirements for this pathogen is lacking. It also is possible that future changes in the genetic base of U.S. maize hybrids could result in an inad- vertent shift toward increased susceptibil- ity and increased vulnerability to PLS."
RICHISTA, PHSPMA-1, PHSPMA-2
McGee, DC. 1988. Maize Diseases: A reference Source for Seed Technologists. APS Press, St. Paul, MN USA. 150 pp.
Carson, M. L. (2005). Yield loss potential of phaeosphaeria leaf spot of maize caused by Phaeosphaeria maydis in the United States. Plant Disease, 89(9), 986–988.
Physalospora zeicola
fungus
Botryosphaeria festucae, Diplodia frumenti, Sphaeria festucae, Physalospora festucae, Physalospora conica
Africa: Tanzania; Asia: China, India, Philippines; Europe: Austria, Germany, Netherlands, Poland, Spain, UK; North America: USA; Oceania: Australia, Papua New Guinea; South America: Brazil, Venezuela.
CA, LA, NJ, OK, AL, GA, SC, TN, TX, ND, FL
Thailand
2024-12-21
Distribution information from Farr and Rossman, 2020.
corn, wild grasses
No
PHYOZE-1, PHYOZE-2, PHYOZE-3, PHYOZE-4
Early reports (1930s) of seed infection, were found, but evidence of seed transmission is lacking. No recent reports of seed transmission for this pathogen, though kernels may become discolored. The disease is primarily found in Florida.
PHYOZE-1, PHYOZE-2, PHYOZE-3, PHYOZE-4
Farr, D.F. and Rossman, A.Y. Fungal Databases, Systematic Mycology and Microbiology Laboratory, ARS, USDA. 2018, http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/
EPPO (2018) EPPO Global Database (available online). https://gd.eppo.int
Richardson MJ, 1990. An Annotated List of Seed-borne Disease. International Seed Testing Association, Zurich, Switzerland
UllStrup, A.J. 1953. Several Ear Rots of Corn. In; A Yearbook of Agriculture. USDA Publication, USA
Pyricularia setariae
fungus
Pyricularia grisea f. sp. eleusines
Africa: Tanzania, Uganda; Asia: China, India, Japan, Malaysia, Sri Lanka; North America: Canada.
Not known to occur
Thailand
2024-12-22
Primarily a pathogen of millets. Some reports of seed infection by this pathogen in millets. Seed transmission is not known to occur (PYRISE-2) No reports of seed being a pathway for corn or small grains.
Main: finger millet, foxtail millet; Other: oats, barley, pearl millet, corn
No
No references found indicating corn seed is a pathway for this pathogen. Corn is a minor host of the pathogen.
Sclerospora graminicola
fungus
Peronospora graminicola, Peronospora setariae, Protomyces graminicola,Sclerospora graminicola var. setariae--italicae, Ustilago urbani
Africa, Asia, Europe, Canada, Mexico, Fiji, Argentina
Widespread in Southeastern US, not reported in Western US
Thailand
2023-08-21
This is an important disease of pearl millet, especially in the tropic climates. Other hosts seem to be unimportant or incidental.
pearl millet, millet. sugarcane, corn, foxtail millet, duram wheat, sorghum, several wild grasses
No
SCLPGR-1
Seed is not known to be a pathway. Corn is an unimportant host for the pathogen and has only been reported in corn once in 1928.
SCLPGR-1
McGee, DC. 1988. Maize Diseases: A reference Source for Seed Technologists. APS Press, St. Paul, MN USA. 150 pp.
Sclerophthora macrospora
fungus
Phytophthora macrospora, Phytophthora oryzae, Sclerospora macrospora, Sclerospora oryzae, Nozemia macrospora, Sclerospora kriegeriana
Worldwide
AZ, AR, FL, IL, LA, MS, ND, RI, TN, TX
Thailand
2023-08-21
corn, rice, oat, barley, rye, sorghum, sugarcane
Yes
SCPHMA-2, SCPHMA-5, SCPHMA-6, SCPHMA-11
Seed is a known pathway for this pathogen. However, the disease is economically unimportant (SCPHMA-11)
The direct visual method is a NSHS Standard Method
SCPHMA-2, SCPHMA-5, SCPHMA-6, SCPHMA-11
Direct visual method
SCPHMA-8
This method is the standard method of the NSHS
Fungicde seed treatments
SCPHMA-7, SCPHMA-2
Infection declines significantly in storage .
Ullstrup AJ, 1970. Crazy top of maize. Indian Phytopathology, 23:250-261.
Cizmic´ I, 2007. Disease causal agents which are seed transmitted in maize, and maize seed treatment. (Uzrocnici bolesti koji se prenose sjemenom kukuruza i tretiranje sjemena kukuruza.) Glasilo Biljne Zastite, 7(5):282-290. (Abstract only)
LingXiao K; Panchi L; HongJie Z; XingMing Y., 1999. Preliminary studies on initial infection source of crazy top of corn. Acta Phytophylacica Sinica, 26:287-288. (Abstract only)
McGee, DC. 1988. Maize Diseases: A reference Source for Seed Technologists. APS Press, St. Paul, MN USA. 150 pp.
Seed Health Testing Method for Sclerophthora macrospora Mz 5.1 National Seed Health System, 2019. www.seedhealth.org
Segura GW, 1979. Corn seed treatments for possible crazy top control, 1978. Fungicide and Nematicide Tests, 34:158.
Rosellinia necatrix
fungus
Dematophora necatrix
Worldwide
AL, CA, IN, MI, NY, OH
Thailand
2024-12-21
Dematophora necatrix inoculum is endemic in the soil where it lives (CABI). No reports of seed as a pathway for any host.
Primarily fruit trees nut crops and other woody and bulbous ornamentals. Considered incidental in most herbaceous crops.
No
ROSLNE-1
Seed is not known to be a pathway. Corn is a minor host of this pathogen. True seed of any host is not known to carry the pathogen
ROSLNE-1
Rosellinia necatrix. In: Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Sphacelotheca reiliana
fungus
Sorosporium holci-sorghi, Sorosporium holci-sorghi f. sp. zeae, Sorosporium reilianum, Sporisorium reilianum, Ustilago reiliana, Ustilago reiliana f. sp. zeae, Cintractia reiliana, Ustilago abortifera, Ustilago holci-sorghi, Sporisorium holci-sorghi, Sphacelotheca holci-sorghi, Ustilago pulveracea, Sorosporium simii
Worldwide
Widespread
Thailand
2022-12-01
Usually only associated with seed lots as loose spores. Primarily soil borne. Not an economically important disease anywhere.
Primarily a pathogen of sorghum. Corn and other grasses are hosts
No
SPHTRE-2, SPHTRE-3, SPHTRE-4
Pathway not proven. Unattached spores may accompany the seed lot, but there is no evidence that the pathogen is seed borne. In laboratory experiments, some researchers demonstrated transmission when mixing spores with seeds, but natural transmission was not reported. Head smut causes relatively minor losses in most cases. Infected ears typically do not produce kernels.
The wash test is a NSHS standard method.
SPHTRE-2, SPHTRE-3, SPHTRE-4
Seed Wash Test
SPHTRE-4, SPHTRE-6
This test looks for unattached spores in a seed lot. This method is the standard method of the NSHS.
Fungicide treatments are available and effective in controlling spores associated with the seed lot.Â
SPHTRE-1, SPHTRE-2
Seed treatements are effective in controlling spores associated with the seed lot.
McGee, DC. 1988. Maize Diseases: A reference Source for Seed Technologists. APS Press, St. Paul, MN USA. 150 pp.
Bressman EN and Barss HP. 1933. Experiments with head smut of corn in Western Oregon. Phytopathology, 23:396-403
Kruger W, 1962. Sphacelotheca reiliana in maize.I Infection and control studies. South Afr. J. Agric. Sci., 5:43-56.
Seed Health Testing Method for U. maydis and S. reiliana Mz 4.1 National Seed Health System, 2019. www.seedhealth.org
Sphacelotheca reiliana In: Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Stenocarpella macrospora
fungus
Diplodia macrospora, Macrodiplodia macrospora, Macrodiplodia zeae var. macrospora, Stenocarpella zeae
Africa, Asia, Australia, South America.
Eastern, southeastern and southern US
Chile, Korea, Thailand
2023-09-05
Not known to occur in the western United States. EU countries were removed in 2022. (EPPO)
corn
Yes
DIPDMC-3, DIPDMC-4, DIPDMC-5, CABICPC, ANNOLIST
Only one report of natural seed transmission was found. All other reports used artificially inoculated seeds., However, seed contamination and a decrease in seed quality has been established and accepted.
DIPDMC-3, DIPDMC-4, DIPDMC-5, CABICPC, ANNOLIST
Molecular methods, Blotter - solid or liquid media methods
ISFRPLD, DIPDMC-6
NSHS does not have a method for S. macrospora.
Fungicides
CABICPC
Chemical Control, Seed treatments are fairly effective in controlling seedling blight, but once the fungus is established in the soil, crop rotation is necessary to eliminate it.
McGee, DC. 1988. Maize Diseases: A reference Source for Seed Technologists. APS Press, St. Paul, MN USA. 150 pp.
Casa RT; Zambolim L; Reis EM, 1998. Transmission and control of Diplodia in maize seeds. Fitopatologia Brasileira, 23:436-441
Siqueira, CS, Barrocas, EN, Machadom JC, Corrêa, CL. 2014. Potential for transmission of Stenocarpella macrospora from inoculated seeds to maize plants grown under controlled conditions. Journal of Seed Science, 36:154-161
Barrocas, E., Machado, J., Almeida, M., Botelho, L., & Pinho, É. (2012). Sensibility of the pcr technique in the detection of stenocarpella sp. associated with maize seeds. Revista Brasileira de Sementes, 34(2), 218–224. Retrieved September, 2021
Cochliobolus carbonum
fungus
Bipolaris zeicola, Drechslera carbonum, Drechslera zeicola, Helminthosporium carbonum, Helminthosporium zeicola
Worldwide
Eastern and Midwestern United States
Korea
2022-11-11
Referred to as Bipolaris zeicola in the ISF RPLD
This pathogen infects corn, primarily, though there are a few reports on sorghum, rice and other grasses
No
COCHCA-1, COCHCA-2, COCHCA-4, ISFRPLD
Pathway not proven. No seed transmission of the pathogen has been recorded. Cochliobolus carbonum is commonly found on seed and turns seed black. Levels of infection have not been reported. Ear rots are only occasionally reported.
Freezing blotter is the standard method of the NSHS
COCHCA-1, COCHCA-2, COCHCA-4, ISFRPLD
Freezing blotter method
COCHCA-3, ISFRPLD
This method has been standardized and validated.
Fungicide seed treatements
COCHCA-1, COCHCA-4
Resistance to race 1 is known.
Cochliobolus carbonum. In: Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Koehler B, 1959. Corn ear rots in Illinois. Ill. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull 638
McGee, DC. 1988. Maize Diseases: A reference Source for Seed Technologists. APS Press, St. Paul, MN USA. 150 pp.
Seed Health Testing Method for Cochliobolus carbonum Mz 2.1 National Seed Health System, 2019. www.seedhealth.org
Cochliobolus victoriae
fungus
Bipolaris victoriae, Drechslera victoriae, Helminthosporium victoriae, Helminthosporium sativum var. victoriae
Africa: Zambia, Zimbabwe; Asia: India, Iran, Malaysia, Nepal, Saudi Arabia; Europe: Germany, Ireland, Netherlands, Switzerland, UK; North America: Canada, USA; Oceania: Australia; South America: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil.
CA, FL, GA, ID, IA, LA, MD, MA, MN, MT, NE, NY, TX, WI.
Korea
2024-09-05
Cochliobus victoriae is primarily seed-transmitted in oats, however spread between plants in wet and windy conditions. It is shown to survive in soils for at least ten years, more in wetter soils.
Main: Poaceae family including oats and grasses. Others hosts: rice, barley, and wheat.
No
RICHISTA
No references found indicating seed is a pathway.
RICHISTA
Pyrenophora tritici-repentis
fungus
Drechslera tritici-repentis, Drechslera tritici-vulgaris, Helminthosporium gramineum f.sp. tritici-repentis, Helminthosporium tritici-repentis, Helminthosporium tritici-vulgaris, Pleospora culmorum, Pleospora sarcosystis, Pleospora trichostoma, Pleospora trichostoma f.sp. tritici-repentis, Pyrenophora sarcocystis, Pyrenophora trichostoma, Pyrenophora tritici-vulgaris, Pleospora tritici-repentis
Worldwide
Widespread
Korea
2024-12-21
Main: wheat; Other: barley, rye, grasses.
Not a host
No references found indicating seed is a pathway. Only one report of this fungus on corn from China (USDA ARS). There is no other evidence that corn is a host.
Cochliobolus hawaiiensis
fungus
Drechslera hawaiiensis, Helminthosporium hawaiiense, Bipolaris hawaiiensis, Curvularia hawaiiensis, Pseudocochliobolus hawaiiensis
Africa: Sudan; Asia: Bangladesh, India, Iran, Pakistan, United Arab Emirates; North America: USA.
Fl, MS
Korea
2025-06-18
Cochliobolus hawaiiensis (more commonly Curvularia hawaiiensis)causes leaf spot and blight in crops. It spreads via wind, rain splash, and contaminated tools, surviving on plant debris and thriving in humid conditions. Seed has not been reported as a pathway
corn, wheat, rice, sorghum, grasses
No
COCHHA-2, COCHHA-3
Seed is not known to be a pathway. Of minor importance in corn (COCHHA-2)
COCHHA-2, COCHHA-3
Pseudocochliobolus verruculosus
fungus
Cochliobolus verruculosus, Curvularia verruculosa
American Samoa, India, Israel, Venezuela, Indonesia, Jamaica, India, Malaysia, Peru, West Indies, Egypt, Taiwan, Thailand, China, Nigeria, Fiji, Pakistan, Nicaragua, Tanzania, Korea, Cuba
Not known to occur
Korea
2022-12-01
This pathogen has been reported in Korea. Korea lists this pathogen as Curvularia verruculosa. This is a post harvest pathogen and a minor pathogen of living plants.
rice, corn
No
CURVVE-3
No references found indicating seed is a pathway. Above references does not list this pathogen as seed borne.
CURVVE-3
Richardson MJ, 1990. An Annotated List of Seed-borne Disease. International Seed Testing Association, Zurich, Switzerland
Curvularia senegalensis
fungus
Africa: Sudan; Asia: Sri Lanka; North America: USA.
FL, TX
Korea
2024-09-23
Appears to be a novelty in corn and rice (CURVSE-1)
Main: yam. Unknown: zinnia. Reported on rice and corn
No
RICHISTA
No references found indicating seed is a pathway. Appears to be a novelty in corn.
RICHISTA
Pseudocochliobolus pallescens
fungus
Cochliobolus pallescens, Curvularia leonensis, Curvularia pallescens
Africa, Southeast Asia, Caribbean, South America, Pakistan, Australia, Denmark, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Togo, Canada, Mexico
DC, IA
Korea
2023-08-21
pepper, corn, bean, fava bean, wheat , rice, sorghum, sugarcane, soybean, potato, buckwheat,
Pathway not proven
CURVPA-1, CURVPA-2
This fungus, along with others, has been associated with white streaks on seed, but no evidence that this pathogen caused the condition. There is no evidence that seed is a pathway.
CURVPA-1, CURVPA-2
Seed wash
CURVPA-1
This test has not been validated or standardized. There is not definite proof that seed is a pathway.
Fungicies
CURVPA-1
Pythium vexans
fungus
Pythium complectens, Phytopythium vexans, Pythium allantocladon, Pythium ascophallon, Pythium piperinum, Ovatisporangium vexans, Pythium euthyphyphon, Pythium polycladon
Africa, Asia, Europe, Guatemala, Caribbean, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Argentina, Brazil, Venezuela, Chile, South Korea, New Zealand, Canada
HI, OK, CA, NC, MD, VA, DE, PA, NJ, WA, TN, LA, WI, IA
Korea
2023-08-21
Primarily affecting seedlings and roots and is transmitted mainly through infested soil. Seed is not known to be a pathway for any host. Zoospores of this fungus can swim in open water for a short distance. This pathogen has been reported in S. Korea. Korea lists this pathogen as Phytopythium vexans
Wide host range
No
PYTHVE-1, PYTHVE-2, PYTHVE-3
Seed is not known to be a pathway for any host.
PYTHVE-1, PYTHVE-2, PYTHVE-3
Pythium vexans In: Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
McGee, DC. 1988. Maize Diseases: A reference Source for Seed Technologists. APS Press, St. Paul, MN USA. 150 pp.
Richardson MJ, 1990. An Annotated List of Seed-borne Disease. International Seed Testing Association, Zurich, Switzerland
Exserohilum pedicellatum
fungus
Helminthosporium pedicellatum, Setosphaeria pedicellata, Trichometasphaeria pedicellatum, Bipolaris pedicellata, Drechslera pedicellata
Poland , South Africa, Australia, Egypt, India, Pakistan, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Australia, Iraq, Brazil
CA, HI, IA, MS, NY, OH, TX, MN
Korea
2022-11-22
Korea lists this pathogen as Setosphaeria pedicellata
wheat, corn , barley, rice, oat
No
TRMSPE-2
Seed is not known to be a pathway.
TRMSPE-2
McGee, DC. 1988. Maize Diseases: A reference Source for Seed Technologists. APS Press, St. Paul, MN USA. 150 pp.
Setosphaeria rostrata
fungus
Exserohilum rostratum, Helminthosporium rostratum, Bipolaris rostrata, Drechslera rostrata, Exserohilum antillanum, Exserohilum gedarefense, Variant spelling Exserohilum gedarefensis, Helminthosporium halodes, Bipolaris halodes, Exserohilum halodes, Drechslera halodes, Helminthosporium halodes var. elaeicola, Helminthosporium halodes var. tritici, Helminthosporium leptochloae, Helminthosporium longirostratum, Exserohilum longirostratum, Exserohilum macginnisii, Setosphaeria prolata, Exserohilum prolatum, Drechslera prolata
Worldwide
Widespread, especially east of the Continental Divide
Korea
2023-08-21
Primarily grasses and grains, reported on other over 200 plant species, including several vegetable crops, but these seem to be experimental curiosity or occasional findings that are not confirmed. Only important grains listed below
Pathway not proven
DRECRO-2, DRECRO-3, DRECRO-5
Seed infection has been demonstrated but seed transmission has not been shown to occur.
DRECRO-2, DRECRO-3, DRECRO-5
Blotter assay
DRECRO-2
Blotter assay has been used in research to isolate the fungus from seed surfaces. This method has not been standardized or validated.
McGee, DC. 1988. Maize Diseases: A reference Source for Seed Technologists. APS Press, St. Paul, MN USA. 150 pp.
Richardson MJ, 1990. An Annotated List of Seed-borne Disease. International Seed Testing Association, Zurich, Switzerland
Nelson RR and Osborne, JC, 1956. The relative prevalence and geographical distribution of fungi associated with moldy corn in eastern North Carolina in 1955. Plant Dis. Rept. 40:225-227
Phyllachora maydis
fungus
n/a
Americas: Bolivia, Canada, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Puerto Rico, Trinidad and Tobago, U.S. Virgin Islands, Venezuela
FL, GA, IA, IL, IN, KS, KY, MD, MI, MN, MO, NE, NY, OH, PA, SD, WI
Korea
2023-12-19
Phyllachora species are not known to be seed borne. Studies are in the early stages for the potential to biologically control tar spot in commercial fields. (PHYRMA-3)
Corn
No
PHYRMA-3, PHYRMA-4, CABICPC, ANNOLIST
Seed is not known to be a pathway.
PHYRMA-3, PHYRMA-4, CABICPC, ANNOLIST
Ceratocystis paradoxa
fungus
Ceratostomella paradoxa, Chalara paradoxa, Chalara thielavioides, Chalaropsis thielavioides, Endoconidium fragrans, Hughesiella euricoi, Ophiostoma paradoxa, Ophiostoma paradoxum, Sporoschisma paradoxum, Stilbochalara dimorpha, Thielaviopsis ethacetica, Thielaviopsis paradoxa, Thielaviopsis thielavioides
Worldwide, primarily in tropical areas.
CA, FL, HI
Korea
2024-11-10
Ceratocystis paradoxa affects sugarcane vegetative planting but does not occur on true seed.
Main: sugarcane, corn, tropical fruits and trees.
No
CERAPA-2, CERAPA-3
Seed is not known to be a pathway.
CERAPA-2, CERAPA-3
Indian peanut clump virus
virus
Indian peanut clump pecluvirus, IPCV
India, Pakistan
Not known to occur
-
2024-09-15
Primarily affects peanut and cereal grains. Requires the Polymyxa graminis to infect. Seed as a pathway has only been shown in peanut and millet (IPCV00-2)
wheat, corn, rice, barley, sorghum, peanut, millet
No
No references found indicating corn seed is a pathway. Corn may be an incidental host because it can be infected by the Polymyxa vector.
Radopholus similis
nematode
Anguillulina acutocaudatus, Anguillulina biformis, Anguillulina granulosa, Anguillulina similis, Radopholus acutocaudatus, Radopholus biformis, Radopholus citrophilus, Radopholus granulosus, Radopholus similis citrophilus, Rotylenchus similis, Tetylenchus granulosus, Tylenchorhynchus acutocaudatus, Tylenchus biformis, Tylenchus granulosus, Tylenchus similis
Africa: widespread; Asia: Brunei, China, India, Indonesia. Lebanon, Malaysia, Maldives, Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Yemen; Europe: France, Italy; North America: Caribbean and Central America, USA; Oceania: American Samoa, Australia, Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, New Caledonia, Niue, Norfolk Island, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga; South America: Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela.
FL, HI, LA, TX
Korea
2024-09-23
R. similis is a migratory endoparasitic species which completes its life cycle within the root cortex and tissues of corms and tubers. Primarily found in tropical climates of the world. Crops in temperate climates are not a risk.
Radopholus similis has ver 350 known hosts; notably Rustaceae (Citrus and related genera) but also other families; Arecaceae, Musaceae, Poaceae, Brassicaceae, Rubiaceae and Solanaceae. It is a serious pest on commercial citrus in Florida and on banana, plantain, black pepper, ginger, coffee, tea, coconut, arecanut and other such crops in tropical and subtropical areas worldwide.
No
CABICPC, RADOSI-3
Seed is not known to be a pathway for this nematode.
CABICPC, RADOSI-3
Pestalotiopsis versicolor
fungus
Pestalotia versicolor, Pestalotia aucoumeae
Asia: India
-
Korea
2024-09-12
Main: trees
No
No references found indicating seed is a pathway.
Pratylenchus zeae
nematode
Pratylenchus indicus
Worldwide
AR, FL, GA, HI, LA, MS, NC, TX
Korea
2024-09-12
Seed is not known to carry the pest in trade/transport. Lesion nematodes are spread through the movement of contaminated soil and infected plant debris.
P. zeae is a pest of rice and other graminaceous crops: principally, maize, sorghum and sugarcane. It has a wide host range.
No
CABICPC, PRATZE-2
Seed is not known to be a pathway.
CABICPC, PRATZE-2
Pectobacterium atrosepticum
bacterium
Bacillus atrosepticus, Bacillus melanogenes, Bacillus phytophthorus, Bacterium atrosepticum, Bacterium carotovorum, Bacterium carotovorum var. atrosepticum, Bacterium melanogenum, Bacterium phytophthorum, Erwinia atroseptica, Erwinia caricae, Erwinia carotovora, Erwinia carotovora pv. atroseptica, Erwinia carotovora subsp. atroseptica, Erwinia carotovora var. atroseptica, Erwinia dahlia, Erwinia melonis, Erwinia phytophthora, Erwinia phytophthorus, Pectobacterium atrosepticum, Pectobacterium carotovorum var. atrosepticum, Pectobacterium phytophthorum
Worldwide
AZ, CA, CO, FL, ID, ME, MD, MN, NJ, NC, ND, OR, WI
Thailand
2024-11-08
Though other hosts are listed for this pathogen, it is unclear as to whether the pathogen was clearly identified (ERWIAT-1). Transmission is absent in true seed.
Main: potato
No
ERWIAT-2, CABICPC, ISFRPLD
True seed is not known to be a pathway. It is unclear whether this Erwinia sp. actually attacks corn.
ERWIAT-2, CABICPC, ISFRPLD
Pratylenchus brachyurus
nematode
Anguillulina brachyura, Pratylenchus leiocephalus, Pratylenchus pratensis, Pratylenchus steineri, Tylenchus brachyurus
Worldwide, primarily in tropical and subtropical regions.
AL, AR, CA, FL, GA, HI, KY, LA, MD, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, VA
Korea
2025-08-13
Pratylenchus brachyurus is a root-lesion nematode that reproduces mainly by mitotic parthenogenesis. It spends its entire life cycle inside plant roots or in surrounding soil, feeding and moving within root tissues. Eggs overwinter in roots or soil, hatching in spring to resume infection. Seed is not known to be a pathway.
Wide host range. Main hosts of economic importance: pineapple, potatoes, peanuts, cotton, tobacco, peaches, cereals, coffee, soybean.
No
CABI CPC, PRATBR-4, PRATBR-5, PRATBR-6, PRATBR-7, PRATBR-8
Seed is not known to be a pathway for this nematode in any host.
CABI CPC, PRATBR-4, PRATBR-5, PRATBR-6, PRATBR-7, PRATBR-8
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Nemaplex.UCDavis.edu; Revision Date: 16-December-2024; Accessed 13-August-2025
Nomura, R. B. G., Lopes-Caitar, V. S., Hishinuma-Silva, S. M., Machado, A. C. Z., Meyer, M. C., & Marcelino-Guimarães, F. C. (2024). Pratylenchus brachyurus: status and perspectives in Brazilian agriculture. Tropical Plant Pathology, 49(5), 573-589.
Agrios, G. N. 2005. Plant Pathology, 5th Edition. Elsevier Academic Press. 922 pp
Chitambar, J. J., Westerdahl, B. B., and Subbotin, S. A. 2018. Plant Parasitic Nematodes in California Agriculture. In Subbotin, S., Chitambar J., (eds) Plant Parasitic Nematodes in Sustainable Agriculture of North America. Sustainability in Plant and Crop Protection. Springer, Cham.
Scheck, H.J. 2023. California Pest Rating Proposal for Pratylenchus brachyurus (Godfrey, 1929) Filipjev & Schuurmans-Stekhoven, 1941 smooth-headed lesion nematode. California Department of Food and Agriculture, Sacramento, California, USA,
Moesziomyces bullatus
fungus
Sorosporium bullatum,Tolypoderma bullata, Tolyposporium bullatum, Tolyposporium evernium, Moesziomyces evernius, Tolyposporium minus, Tolyposporium paspali, Tolyposporium penicillariae, Moesziomyces penicillariae, Tolyposporium senegalense, Sorosporium senegalense, Ustilago verrucosa
Africa, Asia, India,Germany, Poland, Romania, Australia, Canada, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Japan, New Zealand, Spain, Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, Taiwan, Italy, Bulgaria, Mexico
Northeast, Midwest, CA
Korea
2022-12-01
Korea lists this pathogen as Tolyposporidium penicillariae. Pearl millet most common host and seed pathway has been verified for only pearl millet.
millets with male sterility (MOESBU-5)
No
Although ARS GRIN listed corn as a host for this pathogen, the article cited described a teleomorph similar to M. bullatus. No references found indicating corn is a host.
Cladosporium cladosporioides
fungus
Cladosporium graminum, Cladosporium herbarum, Mycosphaerella schoenoprasi, Mycosphaerella tulasnei, Mycosphaerella tassiana, Penicillium cladosporioides, Hormodendrum cladosporioides, Monilia humicola
Africa: Egypt, South Africa; Asia: Bangladesh, China, India, Iran, Israel, Oman, Saudi Arabia, South Korea, Syria; Europe: France, Hungary, Italy; North America: USA; South America: Argentina, Brazil
IA, OR
Korea
2025-10-07
This pathogen is considered primarily a post harvest pathogen that does not cause disease in most of it's hosts (CLADCL-1). C. cladosporioides spreads primarily by wind, rain splash, or contaminated surfaces. It can also persist on plant debris, some seeds, and stored produce, serving as inoculum for new infections. The fungus thrives in cool, moist environments and is especially common in greenhouses, storage areas, and outdoor crops during humid seasons.
Wide host range
No
CABI CPC, CLADCL-12, CLADCL-16
No references found indicating corn seed is a pathway.
CABI CPC, CLADCL-12, CLADCL-16
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Zhang, Z., Ed. 2003. Flora Fungorum Sinicorum. Vol. 14. Cladosporium, Fusicladium, Pyricularia. Science Press, Beijing : 297.
Munkvold, G. P., & White, D. G. (2016). Back Matter. In Compendium of Corn Diseases, Fourth Edition (pp. 147-165). The American Phytopathological Society.
Alternaria alternata
fungus
Alternaria alternata f.sp. fragariae
Alternaria alternata f.sp. lycopersici
Alternaria fasciculata
Alternaria tenuis
Worldwide
AL, CA, FL, GA, IL, IA, LA, MI, MS, NY, OR, PA, SD, TN, TX
Korea
2025-09-08
Alternaria alternata is a widespread fungus that can persist in soil and crop debris for many years, enabling it to infect plants across successive growing seasons. Its spores are dispersed by air, wind, water splash, irrigation, and contact with contaminated plant material. Numerous studies have demonstrated its transmission under experimental conditions, and it has been shown to be seed-transmitted in a few crops within the Malvaceae family.
Main: allium, pepper; Other: watermelon, sunflower, sorghum, spinach, marigold, many fruits and trees
uncertain
ALTEAL-28, CABI CPC, RICH ISTA, ALTEAL-68, ALTEAL-69, ALTEAL-70, ALTEAL-71
Alternaria alternata is commonly detected on corn seed and can be transmitted to germinating seeds and seedlings under laboratory conditions. However, evidence for natural seed-to-seedling transmission is limited, and most reports describe it as a saprophytic contaminant rather than a significant seed-borne pathogen.
ALTEAL-28, CABI CPC, RICH ISTA, ALTEAL-68, ALTEAL-69, ALTEAL-70, ALTEAL-71
Seed wash and visual examination
ALTEAL-28
This test has not be validated or standardized. Blotter methods are used for other hosts and other species of Alternaria.
ALTEAL-28
Biological inoculants have been researched
McGee, DC. 1988. Maize Diseases: A reference Source for Seed Technologists. APS Press, St. Paul, MN USA. 150 pp.
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Richardson, MJ. 1990. An Annotated List of Seedborne Diseases. International Seed Testing Association, Zurich Switzerland.
Basak, A. B., & Lee, M. W. (2002). Prevalence and Transmission of Seed-Borne Fungi of Maize Grown in a Farm of Korea. Mycobiology, 30(1), 47–50.
Sreenu, B., Girish, A. G., Alice, J., & Sujeetha, R. P. (2019). Identification and detection of maize seed borne pathogens using different seed testing methods. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 8(10), 1460-1466.
Xu, X., Zhang, L., Yang, X., Cao, H., Li, J., Cao, P., ... & Xiang, W. (2022). Alternaria spp. associated with leaf blight of maize in Heilongjiang Province, China. Plant Disease, 106(2), 572-584.
Elwakil, M. A. R., Ghoneem, K. M., & Rehan, N. A. E. (2020). Prevalence and transmission of seed-borne fungi of maize and their control by phenolic antioxidants.
Cochliobolus cynodontis
fungus
Bipolaris cynodontis, Drechslera cynodontis, Helminthsporuim cynodontis
Worldwide,primarily in the tropics of Asia, Africa, Oceania.
Primarily in the SE.
Korea
2022-11-11
All reports of US presence from 1950-60s. CABI, 2019 does not consider the pathogen to be in the US. Pathogen does not cause serious disease or losses on any host. Also, it is often a secondary invader. (Farr and Rossman, 2019; Manamgoda, 2014)
grains, grasses
No
RICHISTA
No references found indicating that seed is a pathway. This pathogen is not an important disease of corn. Richardson, 1990 does not list the pathogen as seed borne.
RICHISTA
Aphelenchoides besseyi
nematode
Aphelenchoides oryzae, Asteroaphelenchoides besseyi
Worldwide in rice cultivation
AR, CA, FL, HI, LA, TX
Korea
2025-08-18
Aphelenchoides besseyi is a plant-parasitic nematode that can survive inside seeds, allowing it to be spread through seed transmission. It can also move via water, contaminated tools, or handling, infecting new plants during early growth stages.
Main: strawberry, rice; Other: onion, soyabean
Not a host
ALOBE-1
Corn as a host is cited in several publications; however, these publications cite the reference above as indicating corn can be a host. This reference concludes that corn is not a host for this nematode.
ALOBE-1
Ferris, H. 2019. Aphelenchoides besseyi. Nemaplex. www.nemaplex.ucdavis.edu.
Pantoea ananatis
bacterium
Bacillus ananas, Bacterium ananas, Chromobacterium ananas, Erwinia ananas pv. uredovora, Erwinia ananatis,Erwinia herbicola var. ananas, Erwinia urediniolytica,Erwinia uredovora, Pantoea ananas pv. ananas, Pantoea ananas pv. uredovora, Pantoea ananatis pv. ananatis,Pantoea ananatis pv. uredovora, Pectobacterium ananas, Pectobacterium ananatis pv. ananatis, Xanthomonas uredovora
Africa, Asia, Belgium, Italy, Russia, Poland, Spain, Nova Scotia, Mexico, Haiti, Puerto Rico, Guatemala, Australia, Argentina, Ecuador, Brazil, Guyana, Uruguay, Venezuela
CA, CO, FL, GA, MI, TX, NY
Chile
2023-07-28
Probably ubiquitous, causes post harvest rots in vegetables such as tomato, cantaloupe and some berries. Causes diseases in the field in the hosts listed below. Reported in host range studies on other Poaceae species. Most common in warm, wet climatic conditions.
onion, corn, rice, sudangrass, pineapple.
No
ISFRPLD
No references found indicating seed is a pathway. P. ananatis does not cause significant disease in corn. Seed as a pathway may be inferred because it is a pathway in onion.
ISFRPLD
Ustilago maydis
fungus
Lycoperdon zeae, Uredo maydis, Uredo segetum f. zeae-maydis, Uredo segetum var. mays-zeae, Uredo zeae, Uredo zeae-mays, Ustilago carbo-maydis, Ustilago zeae, Ustilago zeae-mays
Worldwide
CT, HI, IA, MN, NY, SD, TX
Cambodia
2024-05-02
Ustilago maydis is the causative agent of common smut of corn (USTIMA-4). Seed is not considered an important source of inoculum, but it has been documented that seeds can be a pathway for pathogens to enter maize. (USTIMA-2)
Zea mays
Yes
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, USTIMA-2, USTIMA-5
This method is a standard method of the NSHS.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, USTIMA-2, USTIMA-5
Seed wash
NSHSUSDA
Chemical, Cultural
CABICPC, USTIMA-3
Treatment with fungicide. Removing maize plants infected with head smut before the smuts rupture.
Cook, R.J. (1977), The importance of stalk rot and smut in British maize. Annals of Applied Biology, 87: 266-270. https://doi-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/10.1111/j.1744-7348.1977.tb01888.x
J. J. Christensen. (1963). Corn smut caused by Ustilago maydis. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.62035
Jones DR (1986) A chemical treatment for maize seed to control the germination of teliospores of Ustilago maydis.. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 26, 187-191.
Fusarium verticilliodes
fungus
Fusarium moniliforme
Worldwide
Widespread
-
2024-06-12
Fusarium verticillioides is a major fungal pathogen of cereals like maize, causing seedling blight, stalk, and ear rot in maize often under high humidity and temperature or stress. It can reduce seed quality is known for producing harmful fumonisin toxins.
Zea mays
Yes
FUSAVR-1, FUSAVR-4, FUSAVR-6, FUSAVR-7, FUSAVR-9, FUSAVR-10
Fusarium verticillioides is widely distributed causing disease in maize. It is known to be seed transmitted, as well as soil- and airborne, causing systemic infection in maize.
Blotter
FUSAVR-1, FUSAVR-4, FUSAVR-6, FUSAVR-7, FUSAVR-9, FUSAVR-10
Blotter incubation
FUSAVR-8, FUSAVR-11
This is the standard method by the NSHS for Fusarium.
Biological, Chemical, Cultural
FUSAVR-1, FUSAVR-2, FUSAVR-3, FUSAVR-5, FUSAVR-7
The use of biological agents has been considered an effective option as well as improved genetics. Studies on fungicide effectiveness are not consistent with its success long term. Following a seed health certification program should be followed.
Abdul Rahm, M., Mohamed Gh, K., & Essia Reha, N. (2020). Prevalence and transmission of seed-borne fungi of maize and their control by phenolic antioxidants. Plant Pathology Journal, 19(3), 176–184
Omotayo, O., & Babalola, O. (2023). Fusarium verticillioides of maize plant: Potentials of propitious phytomicrobiome as biocontrol agents. Frontiers in Fungal Biology, 4.
Wilke, A. L., Bronson, C. R., Tomas, A., & Munkvold, G. P. (2007). Seed transmission of fusarium verticillioides in maize plants grown under three different temperature regimes. Plant Disease, 91(9), 1109–1115
Xu, Y., Zhang, Z., Lu, P., Li, R., Ma, P., Wu, J., Li, T., & Zhang, H. (2023). Increasing fusarium verticillioides resistance in maize by genomics-assisted breeding: Methods, progress, and prospects. The Crop Journal, 11(6), 1626–1641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cj.2023.07.004
Fallahi, M., Saremi, H., Javan-Nikkhah, M., Somma, S., Haidukowski, M., Logrieco, A., & Moretti, A. (2019). Isolation, molecular identification and mycotoxin profile of fusarium species isolated from maize kernels in iran. Toxins, 11(5), 297.
Basak, A. B., & Lee, M. (2002). Prevalence and transmission of seed-borne fungi of maize grown in a farm of korea. Mycobiology, 30(1), 47.
Sousa, R., Osório, P., Nosé, N. E., Arruda, G., Ferreira, T., Haesbaert, F., & Santos, G. (2021). Detection and transmission of fusarium verticillioides in corn seeds according to the plant stage. Acta Scientiarum. Agronomy, 44, e53213.
Singh, D. V., Mathur, S. B. and Neergaard, P. 1974. Seed health testing of maize. Evaluation of testing techniques with particular reference to Drechslera maydis. Seed Sci. Technol. 2:349-365.
Diniz, G. D., Figueiredo, J. F., Lana, U. P., Marins, M. S., Silva, D. D., Cota, L. V., Marriel, I. E., & Oliveira-Paiva, C. A. (2022). Microorganisms from corn stigma with biocontrol potential of fusarium verticillioides. Brazilian Journal of Biology, 82.
Ma, P., Li, H., Liu, E., He, K., Song, Y., Dong, C., Wang, Z., Zhang, X., Zhou, Z., Xu, Y., Wu, J., & Zhang, H. (2022). Evaluation and identification of resistance lines and qtls of maize to seedborne fusarium verticillioides. Plant Disease, 106(8), 2066–2073.
Thompson, M., & Raizada, M. (2018). Fungal pathogens of maize gaining free passage along the silk road. Pathogens, 7(4), 81
Aspergillus flavus
fungus
Aspergillus fasciculatum, Aspergillus flavus f. magnasporus, Aspergillus flavus var. wehmeri, Aspergillus humus, Aspergillus luteus, Aspergillus parasiticus, Aspergillus wehmeri
Africa: widespread; Asia: widespread; Europe: Czechia, Greece, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, UK; North America: Cuba, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, USA; Oceania: Australia; South America: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela.
AL, AZ, CA, FL, GA, IL, IN, IA, LA, MS, NM, NC, PA, TX
-
2024-06-24
Aspergillus flavus is a fungal pathogen of maize, peanuts, and cotton. It is widespread in soils, crop residues, and air throughout the world. It typically thrives in warmer climates and high moisture areas, particularly in the field and storage.
Main: maize, groundnut, cotton
Yes
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, ASPEFL-4, ASPEFL-9, ASPEFL-10, ASPEFL-11, ASPEFL-12
In maize, Aspergillus flavus targets kernels, particularly in plants weakened by stress such as heat or drought, which causes ear rot in the field and storage rot. High incidences of seed infection can be expected under favorable conditions in seed storage when moisture levels exceed 14%. A. flavus can cause major seed deterioration, which affects seed viability and germination. It is also known to produce alfatoxins, which are hazardous to human and animal health.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, ASPEFL-4, ASPEFL-9, ASPEFL-10, ASPEFL-11, ASPEFL-12
Agar plating, Blotter, PCR
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, ASPEFL-6, ASPEFL-7, ASPEFL-8
Contaminated seeds may also be detected by visual examination.
Biological, Chemical, Cultural
CABICPC, ASPEFL-2, ASPEFL-5
Early identification and treatment of A. flavus, combined with the use of resistant varieties, thorough field inspections, and adequate watering during production, can greatly reduce or potentially prevent economic losses from contamination. The use of fungicides has shown effectiveness as did the use of essential oils.
Diener, U. L., Cole, R. J., Sanders, T. H., Payne, G. A., Lee, L. S., & Klich, M. A. (1987). Epidemiology of aflatoxin formation by Aspergillus flavus. Annual review of phytopathology, 25(1), 249-270.
Amaike, S., & Keller, N. P. (2011). Aspergillus flavus. Annual review of phytopathology, 49(1), 107-133.
Saleem, M. J., Bajwa, R., Hannan, A., & Qaiser, T. A. (2012). Maize seed storage mycoflora in Pakistan and its chemical control. Pak. J. Bot, 44(2), 807-812.
Dolezal, A. L., Shu, X., OBrian, G. R., Nielsen, D. M., Woloshuk, C. P., Boston, R. S., & Payne, G. A. (2014). Aspergillus flavus infection induces transcriptional and physical changes in developing maize kernels. Frontiers in Microbiology, 5.
Meronuck, R. (1987). The significance of fungi. Plant Dis, 71, 287.
Xing, H., Ma, J., Xu, B., Zhang, S., Wang, J., Cao, L., & Yang, X. (2018). Mycobiota of maize seeds revealed by rdna‐its sequence analysis of samples with varying storage times. MicrobiologyOpen, 7(6).
Jedidi, I., Soldevilla, C., Lahouar, A., Marín, P., González-Jaén, M., & Said, S. (2018). Mycoflora isolation and molecular characterization of aspergillus and fusarium species in tunisian cereals. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 25(5), 868–874.
Danai-Tambhale, S. D. (2018). Isolation methods for Aspergillus species occurring on plant seeds. IJARR, 3, 12
Li, H., Kang, X., Wang, S., Mo, H., Xu, D., Zhou, W., & Hu, L. (2021). Early detection and monitoring for aspergillus flavus contamination in maize kernels. Food Control, 121, 107636
Montes-Belmont, R., & Carvajal, M. (1998). Control of aspergillus flavus in maize with plant essential oils and their components. Journal of Food Protection, 61(5), 616–619.
Aspergillus parasiticus
fungus
Aspergillus toxicarius
Africa: Sudan, Uganda; Asia: India, Indonesia, Israel, Japan, Pakistan, Philippines, South Korea, Thailand, UAE; Europe: Italy, Serbia; North America: Canada, USA; Oceania: Australia; South America: Argentina, Brazil.
CA, GA, HI, IL, IA, LA, MS
-
2024-07-01
Aspergillus parasiticus is a fungal pathogen commonly found in maize and peanuts. It is widespread in soils, crop residues, and air worldwide. It typically thrives in warmer climates and high moisture areas, particularly in the field and storage. A. parasiticus can be spread by contaminated soil, decaying plant material, airborne spores, insects, and direct contact. It is known to produce aflatoxins associated with cancer in humans and animals.
Corn
Yes
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, ASPEPA-3, ASPEPA-4, ASPEPA-6, ASPEPA-7, ASPEPA-9
In maize, Aspergillus parasiticus targets kernels, particularly in plants weakened by stress such as heat or drought, which causes ear rot in the field and storage rot. A.parasiticus is most commonly found in areas with high temperatures and high humidity, in the United States this is sporadic in the Midwest but a chronic problem in the Southeast. It can cause major seed deterioration, affecting the seeds viability and germination.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, ASPEPA-3, ASPEPA-4, ASPEPA-6, ASPEPA-7, ASPEPA-9
Agar plating, Blotter, PCR
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, ASPEPA-5, ASPEPA-6
Though blotter incubation assays are commonly used for fungal contamination of seed, no references were found indicating this test has been validated or standardized.
Biological, Cultural
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, ASPEPA-1, ASPEPA-2, ASPEPA-3, ASPEPA-8
Early identification and treatment of A. parasiticus through field inspections, adequate watering during production, and using resistant varieties can greatly reduce or potentially prevent economic losses from contamination. Best management practices for harvest time and proper storage can also be impactful.
Okun, D. O., Khamis, F. M., Muluvi, G. M., Ngeranwa, J. J., Ombura, F. O., Yongo, M. O., & Kenya, E. U. (2015). Distribution of indigenous strains of atoxigenic and toxigenic Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus in maize and peanuts agro-ecological zones of Kenya. Agriculture & Food Security, 4, 1-10
Windham, G. L., & Williams, W. P. (2007). Systemic infection of stalks and ears of corn hybrids by Aspergillus parasiticus. Mycopathologia, 164(5), 249-254
McAlpin, C. E., Wicklow, D. T., & Platis, C. E. (1998). Genotypic diversity of Aspergillus parasiticus in an Illinois corn field. Plant disease, 82(10), 1132-1136.
Sebők, F., Dobolyi, C., Zágoni, D., Risa, A., Krifaton, C., Hartman, M., ... & Kriszt, B. (2016). Aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus strains in Hungarian maize fields. Acta microbiologica et immunologica Hungarica, 63(4), 491-502
Diener, U. L. (1989). Preharvest aflatoxin contamination of peanuts, corn and cottonseed: A review. Biodeterioration Research 2: General Biodeterioration, Degradation, Mycotoxins, Biotoxins, and Wood Decay, 217-244.
Danai-Tambhale, S. D. (2018). Isolation methods for Aspergillus species occurring on plant seeds. IJARR, 3, 12.
Nikolić, M., Savić, I., Nikolić, A., Jauković, M., Kandić, V., Stevanović, M., & Stanković, S. (2021). Toxigenic species Aspergillus parasiticus originating from Maize Kernels grown in Serbia. Toxins, 13(12), 847.
Horn, B. W., Ramirez-Prado, J. H., & Carbone, I. (2009). The sexual state of Aspergillus parasiticus. Mycologia, 101(2), 275-280.
Horn, B. W., Greene, R. L., & Dorner, J. W. (1995). Effect of corn and peanut cultivation on soil populations of Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus in southwestern Georgia. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 61(7), 2472-2475.
Fusarium proliferatum
fungus
Fusarium moniliforme var. intermedium
Africa: Algeria, Egypt, South Africa, Tunisia, Zambia; Asia: Azerbaijan, China, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Malaysia, Pakistan, South Korea, Thailand, Turkey; Europe: Croatia, France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Spain; North America: Canada, Cuba, Mexico, USA; Oceania: Australia, Guam; South America: Argentina.
AR, CA, CT, FL, ID, IA, MI, NE, NJ, NC, TN
-
2024-07-08
Fusarium proliferatum is a fungal pathogen that infects crops like maize and is associated with ear and kernel rot. It can reduce seed yield and quality and is known for producing mycotoxins that are harmful to animals and humans.
corn, sorghum, asparagus, garlic, onion
Yes
CABICPC, FUSAPF-1, FUSAPF-2, FUSAPF-3, FUSAPF-5, FUSAPF-6, FUSAPF-8, FUSAPF-9, FUSAPF-11, FUSAPF-13, FUSAPF-14
Fusarium proliferatum is widely distributed and can infect maize plants from soil, contaminated seeds, or through spores carried over by wind, water, and insect wounds.
Blotter incubation
CABICPC, FUSAPF-1, FUSAPF-2, FUSAPF-3, FUSAPF-5, FUSAPF-6, FUSAPF-8, FUSAPF-9, FUSAPF-11, FUSAPF-13, FUSAPF-14
blotter
NSHSUSDA
This is the standard method by the NSHS for Fusarium.
Biological, Chemical, Cultural
FUSAPF-3, FUSAPF-11, FUSAPF-13
Common seed production practices, careful harvesting, seed cleaning, conditioning, seed treatment, and proper storage, along with resistant varieties, should decrease the risk of this pathogen.
Wang, Y., Wang, C., Wang, L., Zhang, X., Yan, J., Wang, J., & Wang, M. (2020). Development of loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay for rapid detection of Fusarium proliferatum causing ear and kernel rot on maize. Crop protection, 132, 105142.
Wilke, A. L., Bronson, C. R., & Tomas, A. (2007). Seed Transmission of Fusarium verticillioides in Maize Plants Grown Under Three Different Temperature Regimes. Plant Disease, 91(9), 1109.
Bryła M, Pierzgalski A, Zapaśnik A, Uwineza PA, Ksieniewicz-Woźniak E, Modrzewska M, Waśkiewicz A. Recent Research on FusariumMycotoxins in Maize-A Review. Foods. 2022 Nov 1;11(21):3465.
Bacon, C. W., & Nelson, P. E. (1994). Fumonisin production in corn by toxigenic strains of Fusarium moniliforme and Fusarium proliferatum. Journal of Food Protection, 57(6), 514-521.
Chang, K. F., Hwang, S. F., Conner, R. L., Ahmed, H. U., Zhou, Q., Turnbull, G. D., ... & Gossen, B. D. (2015). First report of Fusarium proliferatum causing root rot in soybean (Glycine max L.) in Canada. Crop Protection, 67, 52-58.
Tahir, A., Javaid, A., Khan, S. N., & Riaz, M. (2019). Distribution of stalk rot of maize in Punjab, Pakistan. Int. J. Biol. Biotechnol, 16(3), 703-708.
Masiello, M., Somma, S., Lo Porto, C., Palumbo, F., Favia, P., Fracassi, F., ... & Moretti, A. (2021). Plasma technology increases the efficacy of prothioconazole against Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium proliferatum contamination of maize (Zea mays) seedlings. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(17), 9301.
Munkvold, G. P., & Desjardins, A. E. (1997). Fumonisins in maize: can we reduce their occurrence?. Plant disease, 81(6), 556-565.
Munkvold, G. P. (2003). Epidemiology of Fusarium diseases and their mycotoxins in maize ears. European Journal of plant pathology, 109, 705-713.
Zhou, D., Wang, X., Chen, G., Sun, S., Yang, Y., Zhu, Z., & Duan, C. (2018). The major Fusarium species causing maize ear and kernel rot and their toxigenicity in Chongqing, China. Toxins, 10(2), 90.
Peronosclerospora spontanea
fungus
Sclerospora spontanea
Asia: Philippines, Thailand.
Not known to occur
Mexico
2024-09-23
Spores are spread by wind and rain.
Corn, sugarcane
No
CABICPC
No literture was found indicating seed is a natural pathway. (CABI indicates that true seed may transport the fungus without citing any literature.) Like other tropical downy mildews, transmission only occurs when immature seed is planted after harvest.
CABICPC
Peronosclerospora miscanthi
fungus
Sclerospora miscanthi
Asia: China, Philippines, Taiwan; Oceania: Fiji, Papua New Guinea.
Not known to occur
Mexico
2024-11-19
Spores are spread by wind and rain.
Main: sugarcane
No
USDA-FD, PRSCMI-1, PRSCMI-2
Peronosclerospora miscanthi has the ability to
infect maize, but natural infections of this host are unknown.
USDA-FD, PRSCMI-1, PRSCMI-2
USDA Fungal Database, https://fungi.ars.usda.gov
Crouch, J. A., Davis, W. J., Shishkoff, N., Castroagudín, V. L., Martin, F., Michelmore, R., & Thines, M. (2022). Peronosporaceae species causing downy mildew diseases of Poaceae, including nomenclature revisions and diagnostic resources. Fungal Systematics and Evolution, 9(1), 43-86.
Shaw C.G. (1975). The taxonomy of graminicolous downy mildews, with emphasis on those attacking maize. Tropical Agriculture Research Series.
Peronosclerospora heteropogoni
fungus
rajasthan downy mildew
India
Not known to occur
Mexico
2024-11-19
Peronosclerospora heteropogoni is spread through seeds with high moisture content. Once the moisture drops below 22% the mycelium loses its viabilitiy.
corn
Yes
CABI CPC, ISF RPLD, USDA-FD, PRSCHE-1, PRSCHE-3, PRSCHE-4
Seed is a known pathway for this pathogen; however transmission rates decline with a reduction of moisture rate in the corn seed.
CABI CPC, ISF RPLD, USDA-FD, PRSCHE-1, PRSCHE-3, PRSCHE-4
PCR
Chemical, cultural
PRSCHE-1, PRSCHE-3
Fungicide treatments. Seed storage and drying to less than 20% moisture eliminated seed transmission.
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
International Seed Federation Regulated Pest List Database. pestlist.worldseed.org Nyon Switzerland
USDA Fungal Database, https://fungi.ars.usda.gov
Crouch, J. A., Davis, W. J., Shishkoff, N., Castroagudín, V. L., Martin, F., Michelmore, R., & Thines, M. (2022). Peronosporaceae species causing downy mildew diseases of Poaceae, including nomenclature revisions and diagnostic resources. Fungal Systematics and Evolution, 9(1), 43-86.
Thakur, R. P., & Mathur, K. (2002). Downy mildews of India. Crop Protection, 21(4), 333-345.
Rathore, R. S., Trivedi, A., & Mathur, K. (2002). Rajasthan downy mildew of maize: the problem and management perspectives. In Proceedings of the 8th Asian Regional Maize Workshop.
Barley yellow dwarf virus
virus
barley yellow dwarf luteoviruses, cereal yellow dwarf virus, Hordeum virus nanescens, maize leaf fleck virus, red leaf disease of barley, rice giallume virus, wheat cereal yellow dwarf virus
Worldwide
AL, CA, CO, ID. IL, IN, LA, MO, MT, NY, PA, SC, WA
-
2024-09-25
Barley yellow dwarf virus is reported to be transmitted by at least twenty-five aphids.
Main: oats, barley, ryegrass, rice, rye, wheat, corn; Other: poaceae family
No
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, DPVWEB
Seed is not known to be a pathway.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, DPVWEB
Curvularia tuberculata
fungus
Curvularia tuberculata
Asia: India, Pakistan.
Not known to occur
-
2024-09-25
rice, chickpea
No
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, CURVTU-1, CURVTU-2
One article (CURVTU-2) isolated the fungus from maize leaves. No evidence could be found that C. tuberculata infects maize seed or can be seedborne.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, CURVTU-1, CURVTU-2
De Luna, L. Z., Watson, A. K., & Paulitz, T. C. (2002). Seedling blights of Cyperaceae weeds caused by Curvularia tuberculata and C. oryzae. Biocontrol Science and Technology, 12(2), 165-172.
Jain, B. L. (1962). Two new species of Curvularia. Transactions of the British Mycological Society, 45(4), 539-544.
Ditylenchus africanus
nematode
-
Africa: Mozambique, South Africa.
Not known to occur
-
2024-09-26
The chances of introduction of this nematode into the United States are considered limited because imported peanut seeds are used for food processing. Ditylenchus africanus is disseminated with infected peanut hulls and blemished seeds (DITYAF-1). Not known to be seed transmitted in other species.
Main: groundnut
No
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, DITYAF-1
Seed is not known to be a pathway.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, DITYAF-1
Ditylenchus destructor
nematode
-
Africa: Nigeria, South Africa; Asia: Azerbaijan, China, Iran, Japan, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, South Korea, Syria, Tajikistan, Turkey, Uzbekistan; Europe: Albania, Austria, Belarus, Bulgaria, Czechia, Estonia, France, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Jersey, Latvia, Luxemburg, Moldova, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine, UK; North America: Canada, USA; Oceania: New Zealand.
CA, HI, ID, OR, SC, WA, WI
-
2024-09-26
Ditylenchus destructor is spread through seed potatoes. It is also spread on containers, packaging, and soil. True seed is not know to be a pathway.
Extensive host range. Main: ornamental bulbs, sweet potato, onion, garlic, groundnut, beet, sugarbeet, pepper, cucumber, pumpkin, carrot, soybean, tomato, potato, clover, wheat, corn
No
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, EPPO, DITYDE-1
Seed is not a known pathway.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, EPPO, DITYDE-1
Helicotylenchus pseudorobustus
nematode
Helicotylenchus bradys, Helicotylenchus microlobus, Helicotylenchus phalerus, Tylenchorynchus robustus var. pseudorobustus, Tylenchus (Tylenchorhynchus) pseudorobustus, Tylenchus pseudorobustus
Worldwide
Widespread
-
2024-09-26
Helicotylenchus pseudorobustus is soil-borne. Seed is not a known pathway.
Main: poaceae family including oats, barley, rye, wheat, and corn.
No
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, HELYPS-1
Seed is not a known pathway.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, HELYPS-1
Xiphinema americanum
nematode
Tylencholaimus americanus, Xiphinema californicum, Xiphinema taylori
Worldwide
Widespread
-
2024-09-26
Xiphinema americanum is a group of over 50 nematode species living in soil. They feed on the roots of various wild and cultivated plants. Some species in this group are known to transmit nepoviruses, such as tomato ringspot virus, tobacco ringspot virus, and cherry rasp leaf virus. True seed is not a known pathway.
Wide host range that includes grasses, berries, soybeans, trees, orchards, grape.
No
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, XIPHAA-1
Seed is not known to be a pathway.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, XIPHAA-1
Maize chlorotic stripe virus
virus
maize stripe tenuivirus
Africa: Benin, Botswana, Cameroon, Congo, Egypt, Eswatini, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique, Nigeria, Reunion, Sao Tome and Principe, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe; Asia: India, Philippines, Taiwan; North America: Costa Rica, Guadaloupe, Puerto Rico, USA; Oceania: Australia; South America: Argentina, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela.
FL
-
2024-10-03
Main: Sorghum, corn.
No
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, DPVWEB
Seed is not known to be a pathway.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, DPVWEB
Sclerotinia trifoliorum
fungus
Sclerotinia ciborioide, Sclerotinia trifoliorum var. trifoliorum
Asia: China, India; Europe: UK; North America: USA.
MS, OH
Mexico
2024-10-03
Sclerotinia trifoliorum is a soil pathogen with forage legumes. It thrives in humid, damp environments.
alfalfa, clover, pea
No
CABICPC, ISHI-ISF
Seed is not known to be a pathway.
CABICPC, ISHI-ISF
Rice black streaked dwarf virus
virus
Rice black-streaked dwarf fijivirus, Rice black streaked dwarf virus, Rice black-streaked dwarf virus
Asia: China, Japan, South Korea.
Not known to occur.
-
2024-10-07
Rice black streaked dwarf virus is transmitted by planthoppers. Seed is not a pathway.
corn, rice
No
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, DPVWEB, EPPO
Seed is not known to be a pathway.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, DPVWEB, EPPO
Marafivirus maydis
virus
Maize rayado fino marafivirus, Maize rayado fino virus
North America: Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, USA; South America: Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela.
FL, TX
-
2024-10-07
The only known vector is the cicadellid leafhopper. Seed is not a pathway.
Main: corn
No
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, DPVWEB, EPPO
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, DPVWEB, EPPO
Puccinia polysora
fungus
Dicaeoma polysorum
Widespread in Africa, Asia, Australia, North and South America. No record of this disease in Canada or Europe.
AL, AR, FL, GA, HI, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, LA, ME, MA, MS, MI, MS, MO, NJ, NC, OH, OK, PA, SC, TN, TX, VI, WI
-
2024-10-08
Puccinia polysora is wind-disseminated. It is also reported that Bees of the species Apis dorsata can occasionally assist in the dissemination.
Main: Poaceae family primarily corn and grasses.
No
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, EPPO
Seed is not a known pathway.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, EPPO
Phakopsora zeae
fungus
Angiopsora zeae
South America: Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela
Not known to occur.
-
2024-10-08
Phakopsora zeae is a fungal pathogen that primarily infects corn plants with rust-colored pustules on the leaves and stems. It typically occurs in warm, humid climates. Spores are carried by wind.
corn
No
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, PHLLZE-1
Seed is not a known pathway.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, PHLLZE-1
Pythium aphanidermatum
fungus
-
Worldwide
AZ, CA, FL, HI, IN, KS, MD, MI, NC, OR, PA
-
2024-10-08
Pythium aphanidermatum is a soilborne pathogen. Seed is not known to be a pathway.
Very broad host range
No
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, PYTHAP-1, PYTHAP-3
Seed is not a known pathway.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, PYTHAP-1, PYTHAP-3
Ahmad, Y., & Mirza, M. S. (2000). Pathogens associated with stalk rot of corn in Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Botany (Pakistan), 32(2).
Liu, C., He, S., Chen, J., Wang, M., Li, Z., Wei, L., Chen, Y., Du, M., Liu, D., Li, C., An, C., Bhadauria, V., Lai, J., & Zhu, W. (2024). A dual‐subcellular localized β‐glucosidase confers pathogen and insect resistance without a yield penalty in maize. Plant Biotechnology Journal, 22(4), 1017–1032.
Pythium graminicola
fungus
Pythium gramnicolum
Africa:
Widespread
-
2024-10-08
Pythium granminicola is a soilborne pathogen. The primary symptom caused by P. graminicola is root rot, though it can also infect above-ground tissues, leading to stalk rot in maize, foot rot in beans, and leaf blight in grasses
Main: Poaceae family, including barley, rice, grasses, sugarcane, wheat, corn
No
CABICPC, ISFRPLD
Seed is not a known pathway.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD
Burkholderia andropogonis
bacteria
Aplanobacter stizolobii, Bacterium andropogonis, Bacterium stizolobii, Bacterium woodsia, Phytobacterium andropogonis, Phytobacterium stizolobii, Phytobacterium woodsia, Phytomonas andropogonis, Phytomonas stizolobii, Phytomonas woodsia, Pseudomonas andropogonis, Pseudomonas andropogonis pv. Stizolobii, Pseudomonas stizolobii, Pseudomonas woodsii
Worldwide
Widespread
-
2024-10-04
Seed is not a pathway for Burkholderia andropogonis, it is disseminated by wind and rain.
Main: sorghum, sudangrass, clover, vetch; Other: corn
No
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, EPPO
Seed is not a known pathway.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, EPPO
Albugo candida
Oomycete
Aecidium candidum, Caeoma candidum, Cystopus candidus, Uredo candida, Uredo cruciferarum
Worldwide
Widespread
-
2024-10-13
Albugo candida forms small white raised rust pustules on leaves. Seed is a known pathway for Brassicas.
Main: rape, cabbages, carrot, radisj
Not a host
CABICPC, ISFRPLD
Corn is not a known host.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD
Calonectria ilicicola
fungus
Cylindrocladium ilicicola
Africa: Kenya, Asia: China, Indai, Indonesia, Iran, Japan, Malaysia, South Korea, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand; Europe: Belgium, Italy, Netherlands, UK; North America: USA,; Oceania, Australia; South America: Brazil, Ecuador, Venezuela.
FL, GA, HI, IN, LA, MS, NC, SC, TX, VA, WV
China
2024-10-28
Calonectria ilicicola is a soilborne fungus. It causes red rot of soybean and root rot on alfalfa.
A major pathogen of avacado, and peanut. Reported in soybean and alfalfa.
Not a host
CALOIL-1, CABICPC, ISFRPLD
Seed is not a known pathway. Corn is not a host.
CALOIL-1, CABICPC, ISFRPLD
Mycosphaerella holci
fungus
Didymella holci, Phoma sorghina
Africa: Ghana, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania; Asia: China, India, Japan, Malaysia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Taiwan; North America: Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, USA; South America: Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname.
TX
-
2024-10-28
Mycosphaerella holci is referred to Phoma sorghina in most research, is a soil fungus.
Main: poaceae family primarily grasses, corn, wheat, sorghum, and rice.
No
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, MYCOHL-1, MYCOHL-2
No references found indicating seed is a pathway for this crop.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, MYCOHL-1, MYCOHL-2
Deshpande, K.B. and Mantri, J.M., 1966. A new species of peyronellaea from Indian soil. Mycopathologia et mycologia applicata, 30(3), pp.341-344
Pazoutova, S.,Akademie Ved, Prague . Mikrobiologicky Ustav. (2009). Genetic variation of Phoma sorghina isolates from Southern Africa and Texas. Folia Microbiologica, 54(3), 217–229. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12223-009-0035-4
Sugarcane streak monogeminivirus
virus
Sugarcane streak virus
No distribution information was available. (CABI, EPPO)
No distribution information was available. (CABI, EPPO)
-
2024-10-28
Sugarcane streak monogeminivirus is serologically related to maize streak geminivirus (MSV), and transmitted by cuttings and leaf hopper (Cicadulina bipunctella zeae).
sugarcane
Not a host
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, EPPO, SSV000-1, SSV000-2
Seed is not a known pathway. Corn is not a host.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, EPPO, SSV000-1, SSV000-2
OEPP/EPPO Global Database - European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization
AO, A., Mahdy, A. M. M., Faten, M., Hafez, M. A., & Sadik, A. S. SEROLOGICAL AND MOLECULAR DETECTION OF SUGARCANE STREAK GEMINIVIRUS.
Shamloul, A. M., Abdallah, N. A., Madkour, M. A., & Hadidi, A. (2001). Sensitive detection of the Egyptian species of sugarcane streak virus by PCR-probe capture hybridization (PCR-ELISA) and its complete nucleotide sequence. Journal of virological methods, 92(1), 45-54.
Didymella pinodes
fungus
Ascochyta pinodes, Didymellina pinodes, Mycosphaerella pinodes, Sphaerella pinodes, Sphaeria pinodes
Worldwide
Widespread
-
2024-10-28
Didymella pinodes (M. pinodes in most literature) has a small host range but primarily affects peas where it is of high economic importance.
Main: pea
Not a host
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, EPPO
No references indicating corn is a host.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, EPPO
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cucumerinum
fungus
Fusarium cucumerinum, Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cucurbitacearum, Septomyxa persicina
Africa: Egypt, Kenya, Libya, South Africa; Asia: Armenia, China, Iraq, Israel, Japan, South Korea, Thailand, Turkey; Europe: Austria, France, Germany, Greece, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, UK; North America: Canada, Panama, USA; South America: Colombia.
CA, FL, KY, MI, MN, NC, OK, TX, WI
Nepal
2024-10-29
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cucumerinum is a soilborne fungus which causes Fusarium wilt.
cucumber
Not a host
CABICPC, ISFRPLD
No references found indicating corn is a host.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD
Burkholderia gladioli pv. allicola
bacterium
Phytomonas allicola, Pseudomonas allicola, Pseudomonas gladioli pv allicola
Asia: Israel; Europe: Slovenia; Oceania: Australia, New Zealand; South America: Brazil.
Not known to occur
China, Korea
2024-11-09
Primarily isolated from soil or wet onion residues.
The only natural host is onion. Artifical inoculation includes iris, tulip, narcissus and carrot
Not a host
CABICPC, ISFRPLD
No references found indicating corn is a host.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD
Sarocladium oryzae
fungus
Acrocylindrium oryzae, Sarocladium attenuatum
Africa: Burundi, Cameroon, Cote d'Ivoire, Gambia, Kenya, Madagascar, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Tanzania; Asia: Bangladesh, Brunei, China, India, Indonesia, Iran, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Tajikistan, Thailand, Uzbekistan, Vietnam; North America: Cuba, Mexico, USA; Oceania: Australia; South America; Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela.
LA
-
2024-11-09
Main: rice; Other: millet, sorghum, corn
No
CABICPC, ISHI-ISF
no reference found indicating seed is a pathway.
CABICPC, ISHI-ISF
Choanephora cucurbitarum
fungus
Choanephora americana
Africa: Benin, Congo, Egypt, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Malawi, Mauritius, Nigeria, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Zimbabwe; Asia: Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Japan, Malaysia, Oman, Pakistan, Singapore, South Korea, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand; Europe: Slovenia; North America: Cuba, Jamaica, Mexico, Panama, Puerto Rico, Trinidad and Tobago, US Virgin Islands, USA; Oceania: Australia, Fiji, French Polynesia, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga; South America; Brazil, Colombia, Peru, Venezuela
CT, DE, FL, GA, HI, IA, LA, ME, MD, MI, MS, NJ, NY, NC, OH, OK, PA, RI, SC, TX, VI, WV, WI
-
2024-12-15
Choanephora blight thrives in hot, humid climates, ranging from temperate to tropical regions, with warm and wet conditions promoting its spread. C. cucurbitarum, a weak parasite, primarily colonizes dead plant material but can also infect damaged tissues caused by mechanical injury or insect activity.
Choanephora cucurbitarum affects numerous hosts in at least 48 species with the largest being in the Fabaceae family.
Not a host
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, USDA-FD, CHOACU-1, CHOACU-2, CHOACU-3
No references indicating corn is a host.
CABICPC, ISFRPLD, USDA-FD, CHOACU-1, CHOACU-2, CHOACU-3
USDA Fungal Database, https://fungi.ars.usda.gov
Huan, T. L., & Jamil, M. B. (1975). Seed borne pathogens in okra fruit rot. MARDI Research Bulletin, 3(2), 38-45.
Garcia-Estrada, R. S., Rivera-Salas, M. M., Marquez-Zequera, I., Osuna-Garcia, L. A., Felix-Arellano, V., Castro-Alvarado, L., & Cruz-Lachica, I. (2023). First report of Cucurbita blossom blight and fruit rot caused by Choanephora cucurbitarum in Mexico. Plant Disease, 107(9), 2872.
Siddiqui, Y., Meon, S., Ismail, R., & Rahmani, M. (2009). Bio-potential of compost tea from agro-waste to suppress Choanephora cucurbitarum L. the causal pathogen of wet rot of okra. Biological Control, 49(1), 38-44.
Rhizoctonia solani
fungus
Botryobasidium solani, Ceratobasidium filamentosum, Corticium areolatum, Corticium praticola, Corticium solani, Corticium vagum, Hypochnus aderholdii, Hypochnus cucumeris, Hypochnus filamentosus, Hypochnus sasakii, Hypochnus solani, Moniliopsis aderholdii, Moniliopsis solani, Pellicularia filamentosa, Pellicularia filamentosa f. sasakii, Pellicularia sasakii, Rhizoctonia aderholdii, Rhizoctonia macrosclerotia, Rhizoctonia microsclerotia, Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotium irregulare Miyake, Thanatephorus cucumeris, Thanatephorus praticola
Worldwide
Widespread
-
2025-01-27
Spread happens through soil movement via water, as well as through contaminated tools and plant materials. (CABI)
Extensive host range, infecting plant species belonging to 32 families and 20 weed species from 11 families (CABI). Main: Brassicaceae , Fabaceae, Poaceae, and Solanaceae.
No
CABI CPC
Seed is not known to be a pathway for this pathogen in this host.
CABI CPC
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Pseudomonas viridiflava
bacteria
Bacterium viridiflavum, Chlorobacter viridiflavus, Phytomonas viridiflav
Africa: Algeria, Egypt, Kenya, Morocco, Tanzania, Uganda; Asia: China, Iran, Japan, Jordan, Nepal, Saudia Arabia, South Korea, Turkey; Europe: Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, North Macedonia, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Spain, Switzerland, UK; North America: Mexico, USA; Oceania: Australia, New Zealand; South America: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, Venezuela.
CA, FL, GA, IL, NJ, NY, OK, OR, UT, WA
-
2025-02-02
Pseudomonas viridiflava is a ubiquitous, weak pathogen with a widespread host range. Seed transmission has been suggested, but evidence is limited to artificial inoculation studies showing minimal survival. No confirmed cases of natural seed transmission have been reported. It is primarily spread by rain splash, overhead irrigation, contaminated tools, and contact with infected plant material or debris.
Main: onion, dill, celery, pepper, melon, cucumber, pumpkin, tomato
No
CABI CPC
No references found indicating that seed is a pathway for this host.
CABI CPC
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Microdochium sorghi
fungus
Gloeocercospora sorghi, Ramulispora andropogonis, Titaeospora andropogonis
Africa: Benin, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Kenya, Mali, Niger, NIgeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Somalia, Sudan, Tanazania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe'; Asia: China, India, Japan, Malaysia, North Korea, Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand; Europe: Russia; North America: Belize, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, USA; Oceania: American Samoa, Australia, Samoa, Tonga; South America: Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Venezuela.
AL, FL, GA, KS, LA, MS, MO, NE, NM, NC, TX
-
2025-06-29
Microdochium sorghi is seedborne and soilborne, with confirmed transmission through infected seed and persistence in soil via sclerotia. It can rapidly infect seedlings, leading to reduced germination and seedling blight.
Main: Sorghum; Other: Poaceae family
No
CABI CPC, ISF RPLD, GLOCSO-1, GLOCSO-2
Seed is not a pathway in this host.
CABI CPC, ISF RPLD, GLOCSO-1, GLOCSO-2
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
International Seed Federation Regulated Pest List Database. pestlist.worldseed.org Nyon Switzerland
WATANABE, T., & HASHIMOTO, K. (1978). Recovery of Gloeocercospora sorghi from sorghum seed and soil, and its significance in transmission. Japanese Journal of Phytopathology, 44(5), 633-640.
Bararpout, M. T., Korres, N. E., Allen, T. W., & Bond, J. (2017). Infection of Sorghum bicolor, selected grass species and Zea mays by G loeocercospora sorghi, causal pathogen of zonate leaf spot. Phytoparasitica, 45, 211-217.
Pythium ultimum
Oomycete
-
Africa: Algeria, Egypt; Asia: China, India, Iran, Iraq, Japan, Jordan, Pakistan, South Korea, Turkey; Europe: France, Germany, Italy, Russia, Sweden, UK; North America: Canada, Mexico, USA; Oceania: Australia; South America Peru
AL, CA, GA, ID, IN, MN, MO MT, NJ, NY, OK, OR, PA, SC, TX, VA, WA
-
2025-02-03
Pythium ultimum is a soil-borne pathogen.
Wide host range mainly, Aseraceae, Brassicasceae, Chenopodiaceae, Fabaceae, Poaceae, and Solanaceae family.
No
CABI CPC, PYTHUL-1, PYTHUL-2
Seed is not known to be a pathway.
CABI CPC, PYTHUL-1, PYTHUL-2
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Bickel, J. T., & Koehler, A. M. (2021). Review of Pythium species causing damping-off in corn. Plant Health Progress, 22(3), 219-225.
Broders, K. D., Lipps, P. E., Paul, P. A., & Dorrance, A. E. (2007). Characterization of Pythium spp. associated with corn and soybean seed and seedling disease in Ohio. Plant disease, 91(6), 727-735.
Pseudocercospora ulei
fungus
Passalora heveae Massee, Aposphaeria ulei, Dothidella ulei Henn, Fusicladium heveae, Fusicladium macrosporum, Melanopsammopsis ulei, Microcyclus ulei
North America: Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Trinidad & Tobago; South America: Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela.
Not known to occur
n/a
2025-02-07
Seed is not a pathway.
Limited to Hevea species (rubber tree)
Not a host
CABI CPC, ISF RPLD, EPPO
Seed is not known to be a pathway.
CABI CPC, ISF RPLD, EPPO
Xanthomonas vasicola pv. vasculorum
bacterium
Xanthomonas campestris pv. vasculorum
Xanthomonas campestris pv. zeae
Xanthomonas vasicola
Xanthomonas vasicola pv. zeae
Africa: Madagascar, South Africa, Zimbabwe; North America: USA; South America: Argentina, Brazil.
CO, IL IA, KS, MN, NE, OK, SD, TX, WI
-
2025-08-15
Xanthomonas vasicola pv. vasculorum overwinters in maize residue and spreads when rain or irrigation splashes bacteria onto new plants. Warm, humid conditions favor its spread. Although seedborne transmission can occur in controlled experiments, crop residue and environmental dispersal remaining the primary pathways for spread.
Main: sugarcane, corn; Other: soghum
uncertain
CABI CPC, XANTVV-1, XANTVV-2, XANTVV-3, XANTVV-5, XANTVV-6, XANTVV-7
In corn, the bacterium primarily survives in crop residue from the previous season and spreads mainly through water splash. Although seed transmission has been demonstrated under artificial conditions, evidence from naturally infected seed was detected at very low frequencies (0.1–0.5%); however, no seedling symptoms were observed in these assays, and live bacteria were not recovered from PCR-positive plants (Arias, 2020), leaving natural seed transmission unconfirmed and the seed pathway uncertain.
CABI CPC, XANTVV-1, XANTVV-2, XANTVV-3, XANTVV-5, XANTVV-6, XANTVV-7
Dilution plating, identification PCR, pathogenicity assay
CABI CPC, XANTVV-4, XANTVV-6
Testing has not been validated or standardized.
Cultural
XANTVV-2, XANTVV-8, XANTVV-9, XANTVV-10
Prevention includes planting clean, tested seed, managing infected crop residue, rotating crops, and controlling grassy weeds that can harbor the pathogen. Reduce splash dispersal through irrigation management and clean equipment to limit field-to-field spread.
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Groves, C. L., Lueloff, S., Hudelson, B., Kasiborski, B., Stulberg, M. J., Bates, R., Chaky, J., Mueller, B., and Smith, D. L. (2020). First Report of Bacterial Leaf Streak of Corn Caused by Xanthomonas vasicola pv. vasculorum in Wisconsin. Plant Disease.
Ortiz-Castro, M., Hartman, T., Coutinho, T., Lang, J. M., Korus, K., Leach, J. E., ... & Broders, K. (2020). Current understanding of the history, global spread, ecology, evolution, and management of the corn bacterial leaf streak pathogen, Xanthomonas vasicola pv. vasculorum. Phytopathology, 110(6), 1124-1131.
Arias, S. L., Block, C. C., Mayfield, D. A., Santillana, G., Stulberg, M. J., Broders, K. D., Jackson-Ziems, T. A., and Munkvold, G. P. 2020. Occurrence in seeds and potential seed transmission of Xanthomonas vasicola pv. vasculorum in maize in the United States.
Korus, K., Lang, J.M., Adesemoye, A.O., Block, C.C., Pal, N., Leach, J.E. and Jackson-Ziems, T.A. (2017). First report of Xanthomonas vasicola causing bacterial leaf streak on corn in the United States. Papers in Plant Pathology, 476.
Lang, J.M., DuCharme, E., Ibarra Caballero, J., Luna, E., Hartman, T., Ortiz-Castro, M., Korus, K., Rascoe, J., Jackson-Ziems, T.A., Broders, K. and Leach, J.E., 2017. Detection and characterization of Xanthomonas vasicola pv. vasculorum (Cobb 1894) comb. nov. causing bacterial leaf streak of corn in the United States. Phytopathology, 107(11), pp.1312-1321.
Longhi TV, Robaina RR, Leite RP Jr, Balbi-Peña MI. Survival of Xanthomonas vasicola pv. vasculorum in Soil and in Corn Crop Residues under the Humid Subtropical Climate of Southern Brazil. Life (Basel). 2024 Jun 28;14(7):825.
Stulberg, M.J., Santillana, G., Studholme, D.J., Kasiborski, B., Ortiz-Castro, M., Broders, K., Arias, S., Block, C., Munkvold, G. and Rascoe, J., 2020. Genomics-informed molecular detection of Xanthomonas vasicola pv. vasculorum strains causing severe bacterial leaf streak of corn. Phytopathology, 110(6), pp.1174-1179.
Gent, D. H., Lang, J. M., Bartolo, M. E., and Schwartz, H. F. 2005. Inoculum sources and survival of Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. allii in Colorado. Plant Dis. 89:507-514.
Gent, D. H., and Schwartz, H. F. 2005. Management of Xanthomonas leaf blight of onion with a plant activator, biological control agents, and copper bactericides. Plant Dis. 89:631-639.
Hartman, T.M., 2018. Investigation of alternative hosts and agronomic factors affecting Xanthomonas vasicola pv. vasculorum, causal agent of bacterial leaf streak of corn. Master Thesis, University of Nebraska, USA.
Brome mosaic virus
virus
BMV, Brome mosaic bromovirus
Africa; South Africa; Asia; Europe; Estonia, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, UK; North America: Canada, USA; South America: Brazil.
AR, IL, KS, OH,
-
2025-08-19
Brome mosaic virus is efficiently transmitted mechanically via farm machinery and infected plant sap. Transmission has been observed with insect vectors (flea beetles, aphids) and nematodes, as well as through wheat stem rust spores. BMV can also persist in water, indicating it can survive outside hosts and vectors. While an older report notes possible seed transmission in wheat, under certain conditions, it is generally not considered a major pathway.
corn, barley, grasses, wheat
No
DPV WEB, BMV000-1, BMV000-2, BMV000-3, BMV000-4, BMV000-5, BMV000-6, BMV000-7, BMV000-8, BMV000-9, BMV000-10
In corn, Brome mosaic virus is primarily transmitted by beetles, nematodes, and aphids, and can also be spread mechanically. Natural spread in corn occurs via these vectors rather than seed. There are no seed transmission reports in corn.
DPV WEB, BMV000-1, BMV000-2, BMV000-3, BMV000-4, BMV000-5, BMV000-6, BMV000-7, BMV000-8, BMV000-9, BMV000-10
cultural
Implementing proper cultural practices and maintaining sanitation are effective for managing the virus and its vectors.
Description of Plant Viruses ; http://dpvweb.net/dpv/
Trzmiel, K., Zarzyńska-Nowak, A., Lewandowska, M., & Szydło, W. (2016). Identification of new Brome mosaic virus (BMV) isolates systemically infecting Vigna unguiculata L. European Journal of Plant Pathology, 145(1), 233-238.
Lane, L. C. (1974). The Bromoviruses. In M. A. Lauffer, F. B. Bang, K. Maramorosch, & K. M. Smith (Eds.), Advances in Virus Research 19 (pp. 151–220). New York: Academic Press.
Lane, L. C. (1977). Brome mosaic virus. CMI/AAB. Description of Plant Viruses, No. 180.
Von Wechmar, M. B., Kaufmann, A., Desmarais, F., & Rybicki, E. P. (1984). Detection of Seed‐Transmitted Brome Mosaic Virus by ELISA, Radial Immunodiffusion and Immunoelectroblotting Tests. Journal of Phytopathology, 109(4), 341-352.
Sõmera, M., Gantsovski, M., Truve, E., & Sooväli, P. (2016). First report of brome mosaic virus in wheat in Estonia. Plant Disease, 100(10), 2175-2175.
Moline, H. E., & Ford, R. E. (1974). Bromegrass mosaic virus infection of seedling roots of Zea mays, Triticum aestivum, Avena sativa and Hordeum vulgare. Physiological Plant Pathology, 4(2), 209-217.
Ranabhat NB, Fellers JP, Bruce MA, Rupp JLS. Brome mosaic virus detected in Kansas wheat co-infected with other common wheat viruses. Front Plant Sci. 2023
Hodge, B. A., Salgado, J. D., Paul, P. A., & Stewart, L. R. (2019). Characterization of an Ohio isolate of Brome mosaic virus and its impact on the development and yield of soft red winter wheat. Plant Disease, 103(6), 1101-1111.
Mise, K. and Pocsai, E., 2004. Brome mosaic. In: Lapierre, H. and Signoret, P.A. (Eds.),Viruses and Virus Diseases of Poaceae (Gramineae), Paris: INRA
He, G., Zhang, Z., Sathanantham, P., Diaz, A., & Wang, X. (2021). Brome mosaic virus (Bromoviridae). Encyclopedia of virology, 252.
Phomopsis sclerotioides
fungus
Diaporthe sclerotioides
Asia: India, Malaysia; Europe: Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, UK; North America: Canda, USA
WA
Korea
2025-09-05
Phomopsis sclerotioides is a strong saprophytic fungus that survives in soil, forming sclerotia that can persist for years under adverse conditions. It rapidly colonizes clean or sterilized soil, requiring thorough disinfection to manage. The fungus is dispersed through water, air, and soil particles.
Main: cucumber, cucurbits
Not a host
Corn seed is not a known host.
Xanthomonas albilineans
bacterium
Agrobacterium albilineans
Bacterium albilineans
Phytomonas albilineans
Pseudomonas albilineans
Xanthomonas albilineans var. paspali
Africa: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Congo, Cote d'Ivorie, Eswatini, Gabon, Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Morocco, Mzambique, Nigeria, Reunion, South Africa, Tanzania, Zimbabwe; Asia Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam; North America: Barbados, Belize, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Jamaica, Martinique, Mexico, Panama, Puerto Rico, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, USA; Oceania: Australia, Fiji, French Polynesia, Papua New Guinea; South America: Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Uruguay, Venezuela
HI, LA, TX
China
2025-09-15
Xanthomonas albilineans is primarily transmitted through infected planting material and contaminated cutting tools. It is not known to be seed-transmitted.
Main: sugarcane, Johnson grass; Other: corn
No
XANTAB-2, CABI CPC, XANTAB-4
Seed is not known to be a pathway for this pathogen.
XANTAB-2, CABI CPC, XANTAB-4
Richardson, MJ. 1990. An Annotated List of Seed Borne Diseases. International Seed Testing Association, Zurich, Switzerland
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Birch, R.G., 2001. Xanthomonas albilineans and the antipathogenesis approach to disease control. Molecular Plant Pathology, 2(1), pp.1-11.
Verticillium albo-atrum
fungus
Verticillium albo-atrum var. caespitosum
Verticillium albo-atrum var. tuberosum
Worldwide, primarily in cool temperate climates and in potato producing areas
Widespread, especially in northern states
China, Thailand
2025-09-15
Verticillium albo-atrum is a soilborne fungal pathogen that causes Verticillium wilt in a wide range of host plants, including vegetables, ornamentals, and woody crops. The fungus invades the plant through the roots, colonizes the vascular system, and disrupts water transport. It survives in soil for many years as microsclerotia, making management difficult. The pathogen is primarily spread through infested soil, plant debris, and infected planting material, but seed transmission has been reported (and unverified) in older reports for some crops.
Main: cauliflower. broccoli, lucerne, tomato, potato; Other: brussel sprouts, cucumber
No
CABI CPC, VERTAA-22
No references found indicating that corn seed is a pathway.
CABI CPC, VERTAA-22
Bipolaris bicolor
fungus
Cochliobolus bicolor, Drechslera bhawanii, Drechslera bicolor, Helminthosporium bicolor
Africa: Cote d'Ivorie, Morocco, Nigeria, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zimbabwe; Asia: China, India, Iran, Nepal, Taiwan, Thailand, India; Europe: Denmark, Yugoslavia; North America: Cuba, Canada, Mexico; Oceania: Australia, New Zealand; South America: Argentina, Brazil, Guyana.
Two U.S. reports exist, but only one notes a location (CA).
-
2025-09-17
Bipolaris bicolor is a fungal pathogen in the Poaceae family that infects wheat and other grasses. It produces conidia on infected plant tissues and can survive on crop residues and soil. The fungus occurs primarily in warm temperate and tropical regions. In wheat, it causes leaf lesions and has been confirmed to be seed-transmitted. Experimental studies have shown that it can also infect corn, causing leaf lesions under controlled conditions.
Main: wheat; Other: corn, rice, sorghum
uncertain
CABI CPC, COCHBI-1, COCHBI-2, COCHBI-3, COCHBI-4, COCHBI-5, COCHBI-6, COCHBI-7, COCHBI-8, COCHBI-9, COCHBI-10, COCHBI-11
Bipolaris bicolor has been isolated from healthy corn seeds (Remesova et al., 2007), and pathogenicity tests indicate it can infect roots and reduce seedling emergence (Chambers, 1987). Although no direct data document natural dispersal in corn, related species such as B. oryzae are known to be seed-borne with secondary spread from soil, debris, or wind-borne inoculum, implying similar pathways could occur for B. bicolor. While seed infection is confirmed in wheat, evidence for natural seed transmission in corn remains uncertain.
CABI CPC, COCHBI-1, COCHBI-2, COCHBI-3, COCHBI-4, COCHBI-5, COCHBI-6, COCHBI-7, COCHBI-8, COCHBI-9, COCHBI-10, COCHBI-11
PCR
COCHBI-5, COCHBI-12
There is no standardized test.
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Remesova, J., M. Kolarik, and K. Prasil. 2007. Microfungi on the kernels of transgenic and nontransgenic maize damaged by the European corn borer. Czech Mycology 59(2):205.
Chambers, K. 1987. Ability of fungal isolates from maize and sorghum to infect roots and reduce seedling emergence of two maize hybrids. Plant Disease 71(8):736-739.
Paul, A. R., and D. G. Parbery. 1966. The perfect state of Helminthosporium bicolor. Transactions of the British Mycological Society 49(3):385-386.
Manamgoda D.S., Cai L., Bahkali A.H., Chukeatirote E., Hyde K.D. Cochliobolus: An overview and current status of species. Fungal Divers. 2011;51:3–42.
Morejon, K. R., Moraes, M. H. D., & Bach, E. E. (2006). Identification of Bipolaris bicolor and Bipolaris sorokiniana on wheat seeds (Triticum aestivum L.) in Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology, 37, 247-250.
Bach, E.E.; Barros, B.C.; Kimati, H. Induced Resistance against Bipolaris bicolor, Bipolaris sorokiniana and Drechslera tritici-repentisin Wheat Leaves by Xantham Gum and Heat-Inact ivated Conidial Suspension. J. Phytopathol., 151, 1-8, 2003.
Muniz, P. H. P. C., Oliveira, T. A. S. D., Duarte, E. A. A., Rodrigues, F., & Carvalho, D. D. C. (2025). Pathogenicity and virulence of Bipolaris bicolor on wheat, corn and sorghum. Revista Ceres, 72, e72017.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. (2024, March 5). Importation of corn (Zea mays L.) seeds for planting into the United States and Territories: A qualitative, pathway initiated pest risk assessment (Version 3).
Chakraborty, P., A. Chakraborty, and S. G. Bhattacharya. 2021. Dispersal of airborne pathogenic conidia of Bipolaris oryzae inciting brown spot disease of paddy in West Bengal, India. Journal of Tropical Agriculture 58(2).
Ma, Z., Y. Luo, and T. Michailides. 2003. Nested PCR assays for detection of Monilinia fructicola in stone fruit orchards and Botryosphaeria dothidea from pistachios in California. Journal of Phytopathology 151(6):312-322.
Sivanesan, A. 1987. Graminicolous species of Bipolaris, Curvularia, Drechslera, Exserohilum and their teleomorphs. CAB International.
Ahmadpour A, Heidarian Z, Ghosta Y, Alavi Z, Alavi F, Manamgoda DS, Kumla J, Karunarathna SC, Rampelotto PH, Suwannarach N. Morphological and phylogenetic analyses of Bipolaris species associated with Poales and Asparagales host plants in Iran. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2025 Mar 18;15:1520125.
Fusarium cortaderiae
fungus
-
Africa: South Africa; Asia: China; Europe: France, Italy; Oceania: Australia, New Zealand; South America: Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay.
Not known to be in the US
-
2025-09-25
Fusarium cortaderiae is a fungal pathogen that causes stalk rot in corn and can infect other cereals. It has been isolated from seeds, plant debris, and diseased tissues. The fungus spreads via airborne spores and contact with infected debris, with no confirmed evidence of seed-to-seedling transmission.
Corn, annual ryegrass, soybean, wheat, rice
No
FUSACD-1, FUSACD-2, FUSACD-3, FUSACD-4, FUSACD-5, FUSACD-6
In corn, Fusarium cortaderiae causes stalk rot and has been isolated from diseased ears. It has been recovered from seeds, including corn, indicating its association with seed. Airborne ascospores may facilitate spread from non-crop hosts, such as pampas grass, to cereals. However, there is no definitive evidence of reliable seed-to-seedling transmission in corn, so it is not confirmed as a seedborne pathogen.
FUSACD-1, FUSACD-2, FUSACD-3, FUSACD-4, FUSACD-5, FUSACD-6
PCR
A method has not been standardized for F. cortaderiae.
O’Donnell, K., T. J. Ward, D. M. Geiser, H. C. Kistler, and T. Aoki. 2004. Genealogical concordance between the mating type locus and seven other nuclear genes supports formal recognition of nine phylogenetically distinct species within the Fusarium graminearum clade. Fungal Genetics and Biology 41(6):600-623.
Monds, R. D., M. G. Cromey, D. R. Lauren, M. Di Menna, and J. Marshall. 2005. Fusarium graminearum, F. cortaderiae and F. pseudograminearum in New Zealand: molecular phylogenetic analysis, mycotoxin chemotypes and co-existence of species. Mycological Research 109(4):410-420.
Shang, G., S. Li, H. Yu, J. Yang, S. Li, Y. Yu, J. Wang, Y. Wang, Z. Zeng, J. Zhang, and Z. Hu. 2022. An efficient strategy combining immunoassays and molecular identification for the investigation of Fusarium infections in ear rot of maize in Guizhou Province, China. Front Microbiol 13:849698
Xi, K., L. Shan, Y. Yang, G. Zhang, J. Zhang, and W. Guo. (Original Research). 2021. Species diversity and chemotypes of Fusarium species associated with maize stalk rot in Yunnan Province of Southwest China. Frontiers in Microbiology 12.
Boutigny, A.-L., T. J. Ward, N. Ballois, G. Iancu, and R. Ioos. 2014. Diversity of the Fusarium graminearum species complex on French cereals. European Journal of Plant Pathology 138(1):133-148.
Kuhnem, P. R., T. J. Ward, C. N. Silva, P. Spolti, M. L. Ciliato, D. J. Tessmann, and E. M. Del Ponte. 2016. Composition and toxigenic potential of the Fusarium graminearum species complex from maize ears, stalks and stubble in Brazil. Plant Pathology 65(7):1185-1191.
Fusarium kyushuense
fungus
-
Asia: China, Japan.
Not known to be in the US
-
2025-10-08
Fusarium kyushuense is a filamentous fungal species in the genus Fusarium, distinguished by its lack of chlamydospores, which sets it apart from closely related species such as Fusarium sporotrichioides. Transmission occurs primarily through contact with infected plant tissues and crop residues, with conidia spread facilitated by moisture, wind, rain, insects, and human activity. Although it has been isolated from symptomatic corn kernels, seedborne transmission has not been confirmed. The species is also a mycotoxin producer, reported to produce both Type A and Type B trichothecenes, which can cause toxicosis in animals.
corn, tobacco, wheat, rice
No
FUSAKY-1, FUSAKY-2, FUSAKY-3, FUSAKY-4, FUSAKY-5, FUSAKY-6
In corn, Fusarium kyushuense causes ear rot and has been isolated from symptomatic kernels. It has been recovered from corn seeds, indicating its association with seed. However, there is no definitive evidence of reliable seed-to-seedling transmission in corn, so it is not confirmed as a seedborne pathogen.
FUSAKY-1, FUSAKY-2, FUSAKY-3, FUSAKY-4, FUSAKY-5, FUSAKY-6
PCR
A method is not standardized for F. kyushuense.
O’Donnell, K., T. J. Ward, D. M. Geiser, H. C. Kistler, and T. Aoki. 2004. Genealogical concordance between the mating type locus and seven other nuclear genes supports formal recognition of nine phylogenetically distinct species within the Fusarium graminearum clade. Fungal Genetics and Biology 41(6):600-623.
Shang, G., S. Li, H. Yu, J. Yang, S. Li, Y. Yu, J. Wang, Y. Wang, Z. Zeng, J. Zhang, and Z. Hu. 2022. An efficient strategy combining immunoassays and molecular identification for the investigation of Fusarium infections in ear rot of maize in Guizhou Province, China. Front Microbiol 13:849698.
Wang, J. H., H. P. Li, J. B. Zhang, B. T. Wang, and Y. C. Liao. 2014. First report of Fusarium maize ear rot caused by Fusarium kyushuense in China. Plant Disease 98(2):279-279.
Zhou, D., X. Wang, G. Chen, S. Sun, Y. Yang, Z. Zhu, and C. Duan. 2018. The major Fusarium species causing maize ear and kernel rot and their toxigenicity in Chongqing, China. Toxins 10(2):90.
Cao, Y. Y., Zhang, J., Han, S. B., Xia, L. K., Ma, J., Wang, L. F., ... & Duan, C. X. (2021). First report of maize stalk rot caused by Fusarium kyushuense in China. Plant Disease, 105(11), 3759.
Aoki, T., and K. O’Donnell. 1998. Fusarium kyushuense sp. nov. from Japan. Mycoscience 39(1):1-6.
Fusarium meridionale
fungus
-
Africa: South Africa; Asia: China, Korea, Iran; North America: Mexico; Oceania: New Caledonia; South America: Argentina, Brazil.
Not known to be in the US
-
2025-10-03
Fusarium meridionale causes head blight, ear rot, stalk rot, and root rot in corn. It produces mycotoxins, posing risks to food and feed safety. Where reported it is often the most aggressive and prevalent Fusarium species: in China, 40.5% of stalk rot infections and 29% of maize rot isolates, in Brazil, 97.8% of stalks and 67% of kernels, and in South Africa from root rot cases. Transmission occurs primarily via infected crop residues and airborne spores, dispersed by wind, rain splash, or mechanical means, facilitating infection of ears, kernels, stalks, and roots. Although the pathogen has been isolated from kernels, seedborne transmission has not been confirmed.
corn, rice, wheat, soybean, hop
No
FUSAMN-1, FUSAMN-2, FUSAMN-3, FUSAMN-4, FUSAMN-5, FUSAMN-6, FUSAMN-7
Currently, there is no direct evidence confirming that Fusarium meridionale is seedborne in corn. While the pathogen has been isolated from corn ears and kernels exhibiting rot, suggesting a potential association with seeds, the specific role of seeds in its transmission has not been established.
FUSAMN-1, FUSAMN-2, FUSAMN-3, FUSAMN-4, FUSAMN-5, FUSAMN-6, FUSAMN-7
PCR
This method has not be standardized in F. meridionale.
Zhang, H., W. Luo, Y. Pan, J. Xu, J. Xu, W. Chen, and J. Feng. 2014a. First report of Fusarium maize ear rot caused by Fusarium meridionale in China. Plant Disease 98(8):1156-1156
Zhou, D., X. Wang, G. Chen, S. Sun, Y. Yang, Z. Zhu, and C. Duan. 2018. The major Fusarium species causing maize ear and kernel rot and their toxigenicity in Chongqing, China. Toxins 10(2):90
Shang, G., S. Li, H. Yu, J. Yang, S. Li, Y. Yu, J. Wang, Y. Wang, Z. Zeng, J. Zhang, and Z. Hu. 2022. An efficient strategy combining immunoassays and molecular identification for the investigation of Fusarium infections in ear rot of maize in Guizhou Province, China. Front Microbiol 13:849698
Kuhnem, P. R., T. J. Ward, C. N. Silva, P. Spolti, M. L. Ciliato, D. J. Tessmann, and E. M. Del Ponte. 2016. Composition and toxigenic potential of the Fusarium graminearum species complex from maize ears, stalks and stubble in Brazil. Plant Pathology 65(7):1185-1191.
Machado, F. J., P. R. Kuhnem, R. T. Casa, N. McMaster, D. G. Schmale III, L. J. Vaillancourt, and E. M. Del Ponte. 2021. The dominance of Fusarium meridionale over F. graminearum causing Gibberella ear rot in Brazil may be due to increased aggressiveness and competitiveness. Phytopathology® 111(10):1774-1781.
Xi, K., L. Shan, Y. Yang, G. Zhang, J. Zhang, and W. Guo. (Original Research). 2021. Species diversity and chemotypes of Fusarium species associated with maize stalk rot in Yunnan Province of Southwest China. Frontiers in Microbiology 12.
Boutigny, A.-L., T. J. Ward, G. J. Van Coller, B. Flett, S. C. Lamprecht, K. O’Donnell, and A. Viljoen. 2011. Analysis of the Fusarium graminearum species complex from wheat, barley and maize in South Africa provides evidence of species-specific differences in host preference. Fungal Genetics and Biology 48(9):914-920.
Fusarium brevicatenulatum
fungus
Fusarium pseudoanthophilum
Africa Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, South Africa, Zimbabwe; Asia: Iran, Iraq; Europe: Italy; Oceania: Indonesia.
Not known to be in the US
-
2025-10-13
Fusarium brevicatenulatum is a fungal pathogen reported on several crops, including corn, cucumber, sorghum, and tomato. In corn, it has been isolated from rotten ears and is associated with ear rot, often occurring together with other Fusarium species. The pathogen produces mycotoxins that can contaminate grain. It has also been isolated from corn seeds, demonstrating its association with seed. However, no evidence of seed infection or seed-to-seedling transmission in corn has been documented. While it occurs on diverse hosts, there are no reports linking it to significant yield losses.
corn, cucumber, sorghum, tomato
No
FUSABV-1, FUSABV-2, FUSABV-3, FUSABV-4, FUSABV-5, FUSABV-6, FUSABV-7
In corn, Fusarium brevicatenulatum has been isolated from diseased ears affected by ear rot. There is no confirmed evidence of seed infection, seed-to-seedling transmission, or other specific pathways for the fungus in corn.
NSHS Method Mz 7.1 Blotter
FUSABV-1, FUSABV-2, FUSABV-3, FUSABV-4, FUSABV-5, FUSABV-6, FUSABV-7
Blotter
NSHS USDA
F. brevicatenulatum is part of the F. fujikuroi complex allowing use of the NSHS standardized method.
Nirenberg, H. I., and K. O'Donnell. 1998. New Fusarium species and combinations within the Gibberella fujikuroi species complex. Mycologia 90(3):434-458
Nirenberg, H. I., K. O'Donnell, J. Kroschel, A. P. Andrianaivo, J. M. Frank, and W. Mubatanhema. 1998. Two new species of Fusarium: Fusarium brevicatenulatum from the noxious weed Striga asiatica in Madagascar and Fusarium pseudoanthophilum from Zea mays in Zimbabwe. Mycologia 90(3):459-463.
Tsehaye, H., M. B. Brurberg, L. Sundheim, D. Assefa, A. Tronsmo, and A. M. Tronsmo. 2017. Natural occurrence of Fusarium species and fumonisin on maize grains in Ethiopia. European Journal of Plant Pathology 147(1):141-155
Darnetty, M. D., N. A. M. N. Izzati, N. M. Z. Azliza, M. N. Izam, and B. Salleh. 2008. Diversity of Fusarium Species Assocaited With ear Rot Of Corn In Indonesia and Malaysia.The Sixth Regional IMT-GT Uninet Conference 2008, Penang, Malaysia.
Mubatanhema, W., M. O. Moss, M. J. Frank, and D. M. Wilson. 1999. Prevalence of Fusarium species of the Liseola section on Zimbabwean corn and their ability to produce the mycotoxins zearalenone, moniliformin and fumonisin B1. Mycopathologia 148(3):157- 163.
Chehri, K. (2010). Six new Fusarium species isolated from maize in Iran. Rostaniha.
Glenn, A. 2007. Mycotoxigenic Fusarium species in animal feed. Animal Feed Science and Technology 137(3-4):213-240
United Stated Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Protection Service National Seed Health System (USDA-APHIS NSHS) www.seedhealth.org
Fusarium miscanthi
fungus
-
Asia: China; Europe: Belgium, Denmark.
Not known to be in the US
-
2025-10-15
Fusarium miscanthi was first identified in decaying silver grass (Miscanthus sinensis) leaves in Denmark. Once thought saprophytic, it is now known to cause rhizome rot in Miscanthus × giganteus and ear rot in corn. It spreads through infected residues, soil, and spores dispersed by rain or wind, entering maize ears via silks or wounds. While seed infection can occur, seed-to-seedling transmission has not been confirmed.
Silver grass (Miscanthus sinensis), corn
No
FUSAMI-1, FUSAMI-2, FUSAMI-3, FUSAMI-4
Fusarium miscanthi infects maize by causing ear rot, where the fungus colonizes kernels and spreads through silks or wounds. Infected plant debris and soil serve as sources of inoculum, allowing spores to disperse via rain splash or wind, though direct seed-to-seedling transmission has not been confirmed.
NSHS Method Mx 7.1 blotter
FUSAMI-1, FUSAMI-2, FUSAMI-3, FUSAMI-4
blotter
NSHS USDA
F. miscanthi is part of the F. fujikuroi complex allowing use of the NSHS standardized method.
Gams, W., M. Klamer, and K. O'donnell. 1999. Fusarium miscanthi sp. nov. from Miscanthus litter. Mycologia 91(2):263-268.
Shang, G., S. Li, H. Yu, J. Yang, S. Li, Y. Yu, J. Wang, Y. Wang, Z. Zeng, J. Zhang, and Z. Hu. 2022. An efficient strategy combining immunoassays and molecular identification for the investigation of Fusarium infections in ear rot of maize in Guizhou Province, China. Front Microbiol 13:849698.
Shang, G., H. Yu, J. Yang, Z. Zeng, and Z. Hu. 2021. First report of Fusarium miscanthi causing ear rot on maize in China. Plant DIsease 105(05):1565.
Scauflaire, J., Gourgue, M., Foucart, G. et al. Fusarium miscanthi and other Fusarium species as causal agents of Miscanthus × giganteus rhizome rot. Eur J Plant Pathol 137, 1–3 (2013).
United Stated Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Protection Service National Seed Health System (USDA-APHIS NSHS) www.seedhealth.org
Fusarium nelsonii
fungus
-
Africa: South Africa; Asia: China, India, Iran, Iraq; North America: Mexico.
Not known to be in the US
-
2025-10-15
Fusarium nelsonii is a member of the Fusarium chlamydosporum species complex, originally isolated from soil and plant debris in South Africa. It has since been identified as a pathogen in several crops, including corn (causing stalk rot), sugarcane (associated with wilt), and small fruits (causing necrosis). Although generally rare and less researched, its presence in major crops suggests it can act as an opportunistic or emerging pathogen.
corn, sorghum, wheat, cucumber, pear
No
FUSANL-1, FUSANL-2, FUSANL-3, FUSANL-4, FUSANL-5
In corn, Fusarium nelsonii causes stalk rot and has been isolated from symptomatic plants. It has been detected on corn seeds, indicating its association with seed. However, no evidence has been found of seed-to-seedling transmission, so it is not confirmed as a seedborne pathogen.
FUSANL-1, FUSANL-2, FUSANL-3, FUSANL-4, FUSANL-5
PCR
This method has not be standardized in F. nelsonii.
Marasas, W., J. Rheeder, A. Logrieco, P. Van Wyk, and J. H. Juba. 1998. Fusarium nelsonii and F. musarum: two new species in Section Arhrosporiella related to F. camptoceras. Mycologia 90(3):505-513.
Chehri, K., B. Salleh, M. Soleimani, M. Darvishnia, D. Zafari, and B. Sharifnabi. 2010a. Six new Fusarium species isolated from maize in Iran. Rostaniha 11(1):69-81.
Lincy, S., A. Chandrashekar, M. Narayan, R. Sharma, and R. Thakur. 2011. Natural occurrence of trichothecene-producing Fusaria isolated from India with particular reference to sorghum. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 27(4):981-989
Silva-Rojas, H., A. Rebollar-Alviter, J. Sanchez-Pale, A. Valdez-Balero, J. Boyzo-Marin, E. Flores-Gonzalez, P. Olivares-Mercado, J. Aguirre-Rayo, and T. Uribe-Cortes. 2013. Fusarium kyuyense, F. andiyazi, and F. nelsonii, three new species associated to sugarcane wilt in Mexico. Pages 134-134 in Phytopathology.
Zhang, X., C. Guo, C. Wang, and T. Zhou. 2021. First Report of Maize Stalk Rot Caused by Fusarium nelsonii in China. Plant DIsease.
Fusarium vorosii
fungus
-
Asia: Japan, Korea; Europe: Hungary, Russia, Serbia
Not known to be in the US
-
2025-10-15
Fusarium vorosii is a fungal species in the Fusarium graminearum complex that causes Fusarium head blight in cereals such as wheat and barley. It produces trichothecene mycotoxins, which can contaminate grain, reduce yield, and pose health risks to humans and animals. The fungus is transmitted through infected crop residues, airborne spores, and infected seed, facilitating its spread and impact on cereal production.
barley, corn, rice
No
FUSAVO-1, FUSAVO-2, FUSAVO-3, FUSAVO-4, FUSAVO-5
Fusarium vorosii can cause ear and stalk rot in corn. It produces trichothecene mycotoxins that contaminate grain and reduce yield. The fungus spreads via infected crop residues and airborne spores; no resources were found indicating seed-to-seedling transmission.
FUSAVO-1, FUSAVO-2, FUSAVO-3, FUSAVO-4, FUSAVO-5
PCR
This method has not be standardized in F. vorosii.
Starkey, D. E., T. J. Ward, T. Aoki, L. R. Gale, H. C. Kistler, D. M. Geiser, H. Suga, B. Toth, J. Varga, and K. O’Donnell. 2007. Global molecular surveillance reveals novel Fusarium head blight species and trichothecene toxin diversity. Fungal Genetics and Biology 44(11):1191-1204.
Lee, T., J.-S. Paek, K. A. Lee, S. Lee, J.-H. Choi, H. Ham, S. K. Hong, and J.-G. Ryu. 2016. Occurrence of toxigenic Fusarium vorosii among small grain cereals in Korea. The plant pathology journal 32(5):407.
Molnár, O., Vida, G., & Puskás, K. (2024). Fusarium species associated with Fusarium head blight in Hungarian wheat fields. Plant Disease, 108(3), 558-562.
Obradović, A., Stepanović, J., Krnjaja, V., Bulajić, A., Stanković, G., Stevanović, M., & Stanković, S. (2022). First report of head blight of wheat caused by Fusarium vorosii in Serbia. Plant Disease, 106(2), 758.
Suga H, Hayashi M, Kushiro M, Miyano N, Inoue H, Nakajima K, Kawakami T, Tonooka T, Nakajima T, Shimizu M, Kageyama K. A Novel Medium for Isolating Two Japanese Species in the Fusarium graminearum Species Complex and a Dipstick DNA Chromatography Assay for Species Identification and Trichothecene Typing. J Fungi (Basel). 2022 Oct 5;8(10):1048.
Fusarium acuminatum
fungus
Fusarium acuminatum, Fusarium scirpi, Fusarium scirpi var. acuminatum
Africa: Algeria, Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa; Asia: Azerbaijan, China, India, Iran, Japan, Saudi Arabia, Turkey; Europe: Italy, Norway, Poland; North America: Canada, Panama, USA; Oceana: Australia, New Zealand; South America: Argentina, Chile.
CA, CO, GA, ID, IA, MS, MT, ND, OH, OR, TX
-
2025-10-24
Fusarium acuminatum is a soil-borne saprophytic fungus, commonly found on plant debris and associated with the roots and crowns of many crops. It survives in soil as chlamydospores and can persist on crop residues or storage surfaces. F. acuminatum can be confused with F. equiseti due to similar traits.
Main: corn; Other: onion,
No
GIBBAC-1, GIBBAC-2, GIBBAC-3, GIBBAC-4
Although F. acuminatum has been found on stored grain, there is no evidence that seed is a pathway in corn.
GIBBAC-1, GIBBAC-2, GIBBAC-3, GIBBAC-4
Marín, P., Moretti, A., Ritieni, A., Jurado, M., Vázquez, C., & González-Jaén, M. T. (2012). Phylogenetic analyses and toxigenic profiles of Fusarium equiseti and Fusarium acuminatum isolated from cereals from Southern Europe. Food Microbiology, 31(2), 229-237.
Pouleur, S., Richard, C., Martin, J. G., & Antoun, H. (1992). Ice nucleation activity in Fusarium acuminatum and Fusarium avenaceum. Applied and environmental microbiology, 58(9), 2960-2964.
Li, Y., Yu, J., Guo, Z., Song, X., Xu, M., He, K., ... & Chi, Y. (2023). First report of peanut root rot caused by Fusarium acuminatum in Shandong Province, China. Plant Disease, 107(9), 2882.
Okello, P. N., Petrović, K., Kontz, B., & Mathew, F. M. (2019). Eight species of Fusarium cause root rot of corn (Zea mays) in South Dakota. Plant Health Progress, 20(1), 38-43.
Syncephalastrum racemosum
fungus
Syncephalastrum cinereum, Syncephalastrum nigricans, Syncephalastrum verruculosum
Asia: India, Pakistan
Not known to occur
-
2025-10-24
Syncephalastrum racemosum is a saprophytic fungus commonly found in soil and decaying plant material.
Fruit trees, groundnut, gooseberry
Not a host
CABI CPC, SYNPRA-1, SYNPRA-2, SYNPRA-3
Corn seed is not a known host of Syncephalastrum racemosum.
CABI CPC, SYNPRA-1, SYNPRA-2, SYNPRA-3
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Garg, N., Prakash, O., Pandey, B.K., Singh, B.P. and Pandey, G., 2004. First report of black soft rot of indian gooseberry caused by Syncephalastrum racemosum. Plant disease, 88(5), pp.575-575.
Misra, A.K., Garg, N., Yadav, K.K., 2016. First report of shell soft rot of bael (Aegle marmelos) caused by Syncephalastrum racemosum in north India. Plant Disease, 100(8), pp.1779.
Upadhyay, H. P. (1967). Soil fungi from north-east Brazil. III. Phycomycetes. Mycopathologia et Mycologia Applicata, 31(1), 49-62.
Sporisorium cruentum
fungus
Sphacelotheca cruenta, Sphacelotheca holci Jackson, Ustilago cruenta
Worldwide
CA
-
2025-10-24
Sporisorium cruentum is a seed-borne fungus that primarily infects sorghum. It produces dark, powdery teliospores in kernels, spreading the disease via infected seeds. The fungus can also be soilborne, but infection is generally of little field significance, as spores germinate readily under suitable moisture and temperature, and sporidia are short-lived, making survival between seasons unlikely except in very dry soils.
Main: sorghum; Other: sugarcane
Not a host
CABI CPC, SPHTCR-1, SPHTCR-2, SPHTCR-3
Corn seed is not a host of Sporisorium cruentum
CABI CPC, SPHTCR-1, SPHTCR-2, SPHTCR-3
Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/cpc.
Tarr SAJ, 1962. Diseases of Sorghum, Sudan grass and Broomcorn. Wallingford, UK: CAB International, 380 pp.
Moharam, M. H. A., 2018. First report of loose kernel smut of sorghum caused by Sporisorium cruentum in Egypt.New Disease Reports, 379.
Ullah, S., Afshan, N. U. S., Ishaq, A., Riaz, M., Fiaz, M., Khalid, A. N., & Aime, M. C. (2024). Notes on species of Sporisorium and Ustilago from Pakistan. Mycological Progress, 23(1), 6.
Microdochium nivale
fungus
Calonectria graminicola, Calonectria nivalis, Fusarium nivale, Fusarium nivale f.sp. graminicola, Fusarium nivale var. majus, Fusarium nivale var. nivale, Gerlachia nivalis, Griphosphaeria nivalis, Microdochium nivale, Micronectriella nivalis
Worldwide
AK, CA, ID, MD, MI, MT, NY, ND, OR, WA, WI
-
2025-10-22
Microdochium nivale is a soil- and seed-borne fungus that causes pink snow mold and fusarium patch in cereals and cool-season grasses, especially under cool, wet conditions. It spreads via contaminated seed, soil, and plant debris, leading to leaf blight, crown damage, and patchy turf or stunted seedlings.
Primarily infects Poaceae species, mostly turf grasses, and cereal crops. Main: oats, barley, rye, wheat
Not a host
MONGNI-1, MONGNI-2, MONGNI-3, MONGNI-4
Microdochium nivale primarily affects cool-season grasses and cereals. Although corn is a member of the Poaceae family, there is no evidence that M. nivale causes disease or is seed-borne on corn.
MONGNI-1, MONGNI-2, MONGNI-3, MONGNI-4
Rawlinson, C.J. and Colhoun, J., 1969. The occurrence of Fusarium nivale in soil. Plant Pathology, 18(1), pp.41-45.
Perry, D.A., 1986. Pathogenicity of Monographella nivalis to spring barley. Transactions of the British Mycological Society, 86(2), pp.287-293.
Tronsmo, A. M., Hsiang, T., Okuyama, H., & Nakajima, T. (2001). Low temperature diseases caused by Microdochium nivale. Low temperature plant microbe interactions under snow, 75-86.
Nielsen, L. K., Justesen, A. F., Jensen, J. D., & Jørgensen, L. N. (2013). Microdochium nivale and Microdochium majus in seed samples of Danish small grain cereals. Crop protection, 43, 192-200.
Septoria cucurbitacearum
fungus
-
Europe: UK; North America: USA; Oceania: New Zealand.
IL
-
2025-10-22
Septoria cucurbitacearum is a fungal pathogen that infects cucurbits, causing leaf spot disease. It produces small, circular to angular lesions on leaves that may coalesce, leading to defoliation and reduced fruit quality. The fungus is seed- and debris-borne and spreads primarily through rain splash or irrigation.
Main: pumpkin
Not a host
SEPTCU-1, SEPTCU-2, SEPTCU-3
Corn seed is not a pathway for Septoria cucurbitacearum.
SEPTCU-1, SEPTCU-2, SEPTCU-3
Muradov, P. Z., Shirinova, G. F., Asgerli, L. X., Allahverdiyev, E., Gasimov, C. F., 2019. Species composition of fungi causing diseases in agricultural plants in agrarian sector of Azerbaijan.Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 11(4) 785-790.
Bradshaw, N. J., 1984. Septoria cucurbitacearum on courgettes—a new British record. Plant pathology, 33(1), pp.135-136.
Verkley, G. J. M., Quaedvlieg, W., Shin, H. D., & Crous, P. W. (2013). A new approach to species delimitation in Septoria. Studies in Mycology, 75(1), 213-305.
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